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SOCIAL LIFE OF THE CHINESE: 

WITU 8UMK AC-COUNT Ul' TllElK 

ULlBIin, 60TERX1ENTAI, EDCCiTIONAL, AND BCSINESS 
CL'STOIS AND OPINIONS. 

WITU aPBCIAL DLT NOT EXCXUSIVK KITI'.RKNCR T<> tTIKMIAl'. 



Bv REV. Jl'STirS POOLITTLE. 

YCAH MBiiRn or niE rru'.'iuu mimiom up tul %ui.aic\!« M^iSd. 



IftI rtfT •nc Itnn^rtt «nt #((!( Illuttratfont. 



I.N TWi) VOLT Mrs 

VOL I. 



NEW VOUK; 
li A R P E R & H K (> 1 II i: K >. I' l It I. I ^ m i: >. 

» It A N K I I N H vt t- A II |- 




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V, 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thonsand <'i;r)it 
hundred and sixty-Grc, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern I)i^trict of 
New York. 



\^' 




TO TlIK 

OFFICERS AND PATRONS 

or 

PROTESTANT MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 

iSIQAGCD IN THE EVAKOEUZATION OF THE CHIKESE, 

TO THE PERSONAL FRIENDS 

or 

PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES LABORING IN CHINA, 

Cliese bolniiie0 art Debicateb bQ 

THE AUTHOR. 




CK\t3,i 



V (-, 



\ 



> 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eijrlit 
hundred and sixty-five, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of 
New York. 



\'-'- 1- 




TO TUE 

OFFICERS AND PATRONS 

OF 

PROTESTANT MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 
ENGAGED IN TIIE EVANGELIZATION OF THE CHINESE, 

AJXD 

TO THE PERSONAL FRIENDS 

OF 

PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES LABORING IN CHINA, 

(Klieee bolnmee art IDebicateb bg 

THE AUTHOR. 




PREFACE. 



The reader is invited to the perusal of an original work 
on the inner life of the most ancient and populous, but least 
understood and appreciated of nations. In it an attempt is 
made to describe many of their singular customs and opin- 
ions relating to almost all subjects of interest, and also to 
give their own explanation of the origin or the rationale of 
some of them. If an undue coloring or prominence has 
been given to any custom, or a false statement has been 
made in regard to any subject, no one will regret it more 
sincerely than the author. 

Nearly two thirds of the contents of these volumes ap- 
peared in 1861 ^ in th e C hina Mail, a newspaper published 
at Hong Kong, in anonymous letters, headed ^^ Jottings about 
tlie Chinese^ On the writer's temporarily returning to his 
native land last year, some of the oldest and most intelli- 
gent residents in China, both American and English, strong- 
ly recommended the republication of the letters they had 
seen in a permanent form, in order to supply a manifest 
want in the books already accessible relating to the Chi- 
nese, viz., DETAILED AND RELIABLE INFORMATION CON- 
CERNING THEIR SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND 

SENTIMENTS. The published and the unpublished "Jot- 
tings," accordingly, have been rearranged, abridged, and 
thrown into the form of chapters. Only three or four 
chapters — those at the commencement and the close — have 
been written in this country. If circumstances had favor- 
ed, a more extensive pruning of words, phrases, and senten- 
ces could have been made to advantage. As the work ap- 
pears, it makes no pretensions to a high literary style, but 
is a simple and unpolished account of some of the most sin- 
gular, interesting, and important phases of Chinese life and 
manners. 




11 PREFACE. 

Though specially relating to Fuhchau and vicinity, the 
description of many of the social and superstitious customs 
is generally applicable to other parts of the empire. Such 
customs in the diflferent provinces sometimes vary as great- 
ly as do the productions of the soil in different latitudes, or 
the customs prevalent in diflferent countries in Europe; 
and a book which is equally true in regard to life and man- 
ners in all parts of the empire must deal only in vague gen- 
eralities, and relate to only a few subjects. One of the 
grave faults of most writers on China is, that what they af- 
firm in general terms of the Chinese is true only of the peo- 
ple living in the part of the country where they made their 
observations, not of the Chinese as a nation. 

The illustrations are derived chiefly from photographic 
views, and from pen and ink sketches drawn by Chinese 
artists. 

The spelling of Chinese terms is principally according to 
the system adopted at Fuhchau for writing the local dia- 
lect. The tonal marks are not always inserted ; the Man- 
darin sound is given in a few instances. 

These volumes, it is believed, will reveal to the careful 
reader many phases of Chinese life and manners which he 
will admire and commend. But if he should tire with the 
senseless and useless opinions cherished, and the strange 
and superstitious customs practiced among all classes of so- 
ciety, let him reflect that for over twenty centuries China 
has been in bondage to the writings of Confucius and Men- 
cius, and, for nearly the same period, to the religions of 
Tauism and Buddhism. This fact satisfactorily accounts 
for many of the absurd, superstitious, and stereotyped opin- 
ions and customs prevalent in that empira Its people 
need, above all other things, the peculiar influences which 
the Bible — the great enlightener and enfranchiser — invari- 
ably exerts over those who make it their lamp and their 
law. J. D. 

RoTLAXD (Middle Rond), N. Y., July 20, 1865. 




CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. 



INTRODUCTION. 
Location of Fahchau. — Size and Population. — Rank. — Residence of high 
Officials. — Literary Centre. — Foreign Trade, when commenced. — Sta^ 
tistics of Tea Trade. — Imports. — Exports to Chinese Ports. — Manchu 
Tartars, their Character. — Faithful to the Peking Government. — Pagoda 
Anchorage. — Scenery of the Min. — Kushan, or Drum Mountain. — Ap- 
proach to Fuhchau. —Middle Island. — Bridge of 10,000 Ages.— Bridge of 
the Cloudy Hills. — Scenery and Prospects. — Banian City. — Streets nar- 
row. — Construction of Shops. — Goods, how transported. — Hills are Grave- 
yards. — Horsc-shoc, or Omega Graves. — How Traveling is performed. — 
Mission of American Board. — Mission of Methodist Episcopal Church. — 
Mission of English Church. — Distribution of Books and portions of Scrip- 
ture at literary Examinations. — Swedish Mission. — ^^Native Mohammed- 
ans. — Roman Catholic Church and Mission. — European Priests former- 
ly persecuted. — Difference between Romish and Protestant Missionary 
Work. — Romanist Tracts not circulated in Public. — Religion of Heaven's 
Lord different from the American Religion. — Similarities between Roman- 
ism and Buddhism. — Various Sentiments Page 17 

CHAPTER I. 

AGRICULTITRAL AND DOHE8TIC MATTERS. 

Characteristics of the People. — Houses. — No Glass Windows. — Cold and 
Heat. — Soil fertile. — Principal Crops. — Sorghum not Chinese Sugar-cane. 
— Fruits and Vegetables. — Principal Articles of Food. — Chinese at their 
Meals. — No promiscuous Mingling of the Sexes on festive Occasions. — 
Tea the common Beverage.^How prepared. — Trip to a Tea Plantation. 
— Description of Tea Shrub. — Transplanted. — Congo and Oolong made 
from the same Shrub. — Plucking the Leaves. — Manner of preparing Con- 
go and Oolong. — Practical Inference. — Fields how cultivated. — Threshing 
Grain. — Manner of Hulling Rice. — Flouring Mills. — No Fences. — Man- 
ner of Irrigation. — Artificial Ponds for raising Fish. — Hatching Duck 
Eggs by artificial Heat. — Fishing with Cormorants. — Fuel and Timber. — 
Vegetoble Oils and Tallow. — Temples and Places worth Visiting. — Char- 
coal Birds. — Native Poor-house. — Few labor-saving Machines used. — 
Manual Labor. — Wages of common Laborers. — Employment of Womon. 
— Block Stereotyping and Printing. — A few Words about the Clniie.so 
Language 41 




IV CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER n. 

BBTBOTHAL AND MARRIACUB. 

Manner of Betrothal: Employment of Gobctwcens, or Match-makers. — ^The 
eight Characters. — Fortune-teller consulted. — ^Description of betrothal 
Cards. — Betrothal consummated by exchanging these Cards. — Exchange 
of Presents. — Story relating to the Use of red Silk Threads. — Matches 
made in Heaven. — Customs observed between Betrothal and the Dai/ of Mar- 
riage: Selection of lucky Days. — Wedding Cakes. — Mutual sending of 
Presents. — Bride*s Outfit or Dowry. — ** Sifting four Eyes." — Expelling 
the Filth. — Placing the bridal Bedstead in Position. — Trying on her 
wedding Garments. — Sending the bridal Sedan for the Bride. — Ceremonies 
observed on the Day of Marriage : The " new Woman'* at Breakfast. — The 
Bride in her Sedan. — The four Cakes and Bed-quilt. — Bridal Procession. — 
" Receiring the Bride." — Ceremonies on Arrival at her Husband's Home. 
— ^Bride and Bridegroom sit side by side. — ^Worshiping Heaven and Earth. 
— Worshiping ancestral Tablets. — Drinking Wine together. — Weddinj? 
Dinner. — Guests present Money. — Seeing the Bride in the Evening. — 
Candles in the bridal Chamber at Night Page 65 

CHAPTER m. 

BETBOTHAL AND MARRIAGE — Continued, 

Customs observed subsequent to the Wedding-day: "Coming out of the 
Room." — Worship of the God of the Kitchen. — On the third Day they 
visit the Bride's Parents. — Use of a Charm to ward off Evil Spirits from 
the Bride. — Worship of her Family's ancestral Tablets. — Pn^nts from 
her Mother at the End of a Month. — Presents between the Groom and 
his Parents-in-law. — Frequent Use of Incense and Candles. — Miscella- 
neous Practices and Sentiments relating to Betrothal and Marriage ; A ** lit- 
tle Bride." — Betrothal of unborn Children. — Marriages of People of the 
same Surname interdicted. — Bridegroom living in his Father-in-law's 
Family. — "Marrying the Wearer of a white Skirt." — Marrying within a 
hundred Days after the Death of a Parent. — "Asking for her Shoes." — 
"Broken Thread." — Bridal Procession in White. — Urging on the Mar- 
riage. — Kidnapping the Bride. — Breaking up the Betrothment. — Seven 
Reasons for Divorcing a Wife. — Three Reasons why a Wife may not be 
Divorced. — Marrying the Wife of a living Man. — Inferior Wives. — Chi- 
nese Sutteeism by Hanging. — Honorary Portals in Memory of virtuous 
and filial Widows 92 

CHAPTER rvr. 

MARRIED LIFB AND CHILDREN. 

Superstitious Customs observed by Married Women^ or relating to them : Adopt- 
ing a Child versus Grafting. — Examining tlie Flower-tree. — Changing the 
Flower-rase. — Asking "Mother" iof the lOMi of a Shoe. — Begging a 
Flower from "Mother." — Ceremony of the middle Period. — Pn^itiating 
certain two female Demons. — Methodi of aacertAining the Sex of unborn 




CONTENTS. V 

Children. — DifBcnlt Labor. — Use of Poppets. — Turning around the 
"Strait Charm." — Ceremony in case an apparently lifeless Child is bom. 
— Singular or Superstitious Customs relating to Children the first year of 
« duir Uoes: Washing the Child before imago of ** Mother." — Binding its 
Wrists. — Warding off unfavorable Influences into theTrowsers. — ^Thanks- 
giving to *' Mother.'* — Shaving the Child's head when one Month old. — 
Child sits on a Chair when four Months old. — Ceremony of ''Grasping 
Things** when one Year old. — Singular or Superstitious Customs relating to 
Children after they care one Year old: ''Burning Paper to 'Mother.*" — 
Cuuing the Cords of the Feet. — "Passing through the Door."— Letting 
the "Peach" grow. — Burning mock-Money monthly. — Worshiping "Moth- 
er'* on her Birthday. — Praising the Measure in the eighth Month. — Ori- 
gin of the Custom.— Worship of Confucius annually by Teacher and Pu- 
pils. — Worship of Confucius " on entering School." — " Going out of Child- 
hood." — Becoming of Age. — Prosecution of unfilial Children before Mag- 
istrates. — Punishment of a Parricide. Pftgc 113 

CHAPTER V. 

SUPERSTmoUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 

Miscellaneous St^>erstitions to cure the Sick: Death owing to the " Reckoning 
of Heaven.** — Propitiating the " Destroying God." — Expelling deadly In- 
fluences. — Inviting the Mandate of the "Arrow.** — Attributing the Dis- 
ease to some angry God. — Ascribing the Sickness to the Enmity of a de- 
ceased Person. — Inviting the God of Medicine to visit the Sick. — Getting 
ten Men to become Security. — Endeavoring to bring back the Spirit of the 
Sick. — Following the Directions of a Book of Charms. — Burning a repre- 
sentative pa|)er Image of the Sick. — Ascending a Ladder of Knives. — 
They implore the Aid of certain Divinities in curing Small-pox and Measles: 
Worship of the Goddess of Small-pox. — Steaming Balls of Yeast. — Beating 
a Drum or Gong when it Thunders. — Roasting black Beans. — Presents in- 
dicating the Wish that the Scabs of the Small-pox may fall off". — Thank-of- 
fering to the Goddess of Small-pox. — Worship of the Goddess of Measles. 
— They employ novel Methods for curing and preventing Cholera and other 
epidrntic Diseases : Epidemics under control of the Five Rulers. — Idol Pro- 
cessions. — Tall white Devil and short black Devil. — Paper Boats carried 
in Procession, and burnt at Water's Edge. — An unusual kind of Idol Pro- 
cession to expel unhealthy Influences. — They engage in Idol Processions as 
a Token of Gratitude for the Recovery of their Parents from Sickness^ or to 
promote their longevity: Making Vows before popular Idols. — Kneeling 
down in the Streets before the Idol in Procession. — Wearing Cangues and 
Fetters. — Dressing in red Coats. — Carrying a Stick of lighted Incense. — 
Ceremony before the Great King 142 

CHAPTER VI. 

DEATlf, MOCRNIKO, AND BURIAL. 

Singular or Superstitiotis Citstoms relating to Mourning and the wsbwied Dead: 
Bidding Farewell at Death.— Lighting Candles and I nceiM^— Turning 




VI CONTENTS. 

around the "Bridge-Ladder.*' — Offering Food and Wine to the Dead.— 
Cash used before the Place for the Spirit of the Dead. — The Burning of 
a miniature Paper Sedan for the Use of the Dead. — Putting " longevity" 
Clothes on the Corpse. — Placing the Corpse in the Coffin. — Arranging a 
Table before the Place of the Spirit. — The ** longevity" Picture. — Using 
Cash to inquire of the Dead. — The Servant Devil. — ^Performing the Cer- 
emony for the Repose of the Spirit of the Dead. — Sleeping by the Coffin. 
— ^Bringing Water in the Morning, and Waiting on the Dead at Meal- 
time, and bidding "Good-night!" — The Relatives make Presents for Use 
in Sacrificing to the Dead. — Worshiping the "longevity" Picture. — In- 
forming the Ten Kings of Hell of the Death of the Individual. — Observ- 
ing a Ceremony in Honor of the Seven Kings. — Putting on Mourning on 
the Seventh Day. — Celebrating every Seventh Day for Seven Times. — 
Ceasing to offer Rice at Meal-time. — ^The Present received by the mar- 
ried Daughter to dry up her Tears. — Celebrating the Sixtieth Day. — Ob- 
serving the Fourteenth and Thirtieth of every Month. — The Celebration 
at the End of Three Years, and Removing the Table from before the 
Place of the Spirit. — Observing the Anniversary of the Birth and the 
Death of the Dead. — Meritorious Ceremonies per/onnedfor the Benefit oj 
the Dead: Mounting the Platform. — Letting go the Water Lanterns. — 
Breaking into Hell. — Spirits passing over the Bridge. — Introductory Serv- 
ice. — Issuing the Notification. — The bright Lantern of Seventeen Buddhiis. 
— Burning a Paper Sedan, an image of a Crane, and Trunks of mock- 
Money and mock-Clothing. — Sending Money to pay the Debt of the De- 
ceased, or.for the Use of the Animal to which he belongs. — Public Notice 
of Meritorious Ceremonies. — The Water Ceremony. — Service of using the 
Names of 1000 Buddhas. — Bloody-Pond Ceremony. — Ceremony to propi- 
tiate the Ten Kings of Hell Page 1G8 

CHAPTER VIL 

DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL — Continued. 

SingtUar or Superstitious Customs relating to Burial: Blood Burial. — The 
Coffin sometimes deposited temporarily in a Dead-house. — Ceremonies 
of Depositing it there. — Order of Funeral Processions. — "Buying the 
Road.*' — "Gods Opening the Road.** — "Arranging a Sacrifice** in Honor 
of the Dead in the Street or at the House. — Lowering the Coffin into the 
Grave. — Eating certain Cakes as an Omen of Good. — Offerings to the 
Gods of the Hills, and to the Spirits of Beggars and Lepers in Hell. — 
Conclusion of the Ceremonies at the Grave. — ^Tablet of the Dead carried 
Home. — The "Dotting*' of the Tablet. — Miscellaneous Practices and Opin- 
ions relating to the Dead: Badges of Mourning worn by Widows and Wid- 
owers. — White "Cloths to cry with.** — Presents to counteract unlucky 
Influences. — Grave-clothes sometimes only basted or pasted together. — 
Begetting Children during the Period of Mourning unlawful. — Solicitude 
reUting to Coffins. — Incidents. — Purchase of Coffins during Lifetime. — 
Preparing for Death. — The golden Lad and the gemmeous Lass. — Uhc 
of a white Cock on the Coffin 198 




CONTENTS. Vll 

CHAPTER VIII. 

▲HCB8TRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

JTte ancestral Tablet used in private Houses : Two Accounts of the Origin of 
the ancestfal Tablet. — Size and Appearance of the Tablet erected by the 
eldest Son. — Daughters not permitted to erect a Tablet. — Description of 
general Tablet erected by any Son but the Eldest. — Worshiped for three 
or five Generations. — Fixed Times for worshiping the Tablet — Worship 
of Ancestors in ancestral Halls : General and branch Halls. — Permanent 
Fund for Expenses of Worship. — Six specified Times for annual Worship 
in them. — Visit to an ancestral Hall : Description of the Hall visited. — 
Cost of Erection. — Manner of Worship on the Day of the autumnal Sac- 
rifice Page 217 

CHAPTER IX. 

PRIESTS OF THE THREE RELIGIONS. 

Priests of Buddhism : Buddhism not native in China. — Buddhist Priests live 
in Monasteries or Temples. — Governed by Abbots. — Description of Bud- 
dhist Costume. — Monkish. — Ignore the common Duties and Relations of 
Life. — Brief Description of Worship at the Monastery on Drum Mountain. 
— Animals kept alive there as a Work of Merit. — Do not eat animal Food. 
— How the Sect is kept up. — Singular Method of Seclusion. — Cremation 
of the Corpses of Priests. — Worship of the Three Precious Ones. — Priests 
of Tauism^ or the Sect of Rationalism : Tauism at Fuhchau less popular 
than Buddhism. — The Class called Td-ing much like the Buddhist Priests. 
— The Class 7^-/ai much unlike the Buddhist Priests. — Tauist Priests eat 
Meat as well as Vegetables. — Tii-tai much employed in performing meri- 
torious Ceremonies. — Tauist Priests worship the Three Pure Ones. — 
Priests of Confucianism^ or the Sect of the Learned: Professors of Cere- 
mony or Politeness. — ^Two Classes. — One employed by Mandarins. — The 
other employed by the common People. — Brief Notice of the Doctrines or 
Principles of Confucianism. — No Nuns at Fuhchau 236 

CHAPTER X 

POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

Siang Huong, **The Lord of the Province." — Image carried forth in Proces- 
sion three times per Year. — Ngiik Huong Siong Td^ *'The Pearly Em|)C- 
ror Supreme Ruler," principal God of the Tauist Sect. — Tat Sang, ** Great 
or Universal Mountain," much worshiped by Tartars as well as Chinese. — 
Hieng Tieng Siong Td, Supreme Ruler of the Sombre Heavens. — Huo Sing, 
God of Fire. — Kuang Ing Huk, Goddess of Mercy.— 3/a Chu, Goddess of 
Sailors. — Linff 0iv% A'a, commonly called "Mother," Groddess of Midwife- 
ry and of Children. — Sang Huong, the three Emperors. — Kuang Td, Chi- 
nese God of War. — Uong Tieng Kung, King, Heavenly Prince. — Ung 
Chong Td Kung, the God of Literature. — Nguong Saui, a God of Play- 
•ctingt Wrestling, and Music. — Tu Te Kung and Ouxi Sing, Gbdt of 




VUl CONTENTS. 

Wealth. — Lu Pang, Patron Deity of those who use the Chisel and tho 
Saw.— 2m .ffiSfc Sat, God of Swine.— Tii CMeng Kui, a God of Gam- 
blers Page 255 

CHAPTER XI. 

FOPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES — Continued. 

NguHieng Rung, God of Thieves.— /6A Uong Chu Su, the God of Medicine. 
—IKwmg Tdi U6ng, the God of Surgery.- (7dA: Udng, King of the Min 
Country. — Ngu Td, the Five Rulers or Emperors. — What they represent. 
— Called corrupt Gods. — Titled Marquis by Decree of Hien Fung. — Pro- 
cessions in Public in the fifth and sixth Months very numerous. — Unions 
or Clubs formed to honor them. — Preparations for Processions in their 
honor. — Paper Boats. — Happy Bucket. — Sailors' Society. — Paper Boat 
sent out to Sea.— Tall white Devil and short black Devil.— Buffalo-head- 
ed, Horse-faced, Cock-headed, and Duck-mouthed Assistants. — Assistant 
carrying a Cangue, and Assistant carrying a Chain and a Lock. — The 
«* accomplishing" and the "transforming" Assistants. — Four Assistants 
representing the four Seasons. — Five Assistants representing the five Di- 
rections. — Such Processions imposing. — Images and Pictures of Animals 
worshiped: The Monkey.— The Fox.— The Tiger (worshiped by Gam- 
blers). — The Tiger (worshiped by Mothers in Behalf of their sick Chil- 
dren). — Heavenly Dog. — A Servant of the God of Music represented by a 
Dog. — The black Monkey and the white Rabbit. — The Dragon. — White 
Cock 273 

CHAPTER Xn. 

MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 

Viceroy. — Governor. — Treasurer. — Judge. — Salt Commissioner. — Pro- 
vision Commissioner. — Prefect. — Marine Inspector. — District Magis- 
trates. — Literary Chancellor. — ^Tartar General. — Major General. — Num- 
ber, of Sedan-bearers allowed to Mandarins. — Umbrellas of State. — But- 
tons or Balls on their Caps. — Cannon fired in Honor. — Respect paid to 
Officers in the Street. — Retinue of high Officers in Public. — Lictors of 
the District Magistrate. — Uniform of Attendants not in good Taste. — Ap- 
pointed Days for calling on the Viceroy and Governor. — Same Days al- 
lotted for filing Prosecutions. — Other Days for calling upon subordinate 
Mandarins. — "Drum Pavilion." — No fixed Charges fof official Aid. — 
Bambooing. — Deception practiced. — Official Documents must be Stamped. 
— " Horses of a thousand Li.** — Complaint must be made before a Mur- 
derer is arrested and punished. — Village Constable. — ** White** Deeds and 
** Bed** Deeds. — Eruit sent as Tribute to Peking annually. — Mandarins 
engage in saving the Moon or Sun when eclipsed. — Arresting and chain- 
ing one*8 self. — Death by Strangulation. — Meaning of a Present of a Silk 
Cord from the Emperor. — "Searching a Mandarin*s House.** — Fining 
Part of Salary. — Degrading from Rank. — Removing from Office. — Re- 
signing Office on the Death of one*8 Parent. — Asking Permission to resign 




CONTENTS. IX 

Office on Accoant of Xllnoss of a Parent — Asking Permission to resign 
Office and remain with Parents until they Die. — Resigning a high Office 
because a Relative or Friend fills a subordinate Office. — Asking for a short 
Respite from the Cares of Office. — Resignations often unaccepted. — Res- 
ignations on account of old Age proffered. — Asking leave to resign on Ac- 
count of Sickness.— Setting a Thief to catch a Thief.— Civil Thief-catch- 
er. — Military Thief-catcher. — Once a Thief always a Thief.— Universal 
Custom of giving Presents to a Mandarin on his Arrival at his Mandarin- 
ate.— vMandarins greatly under the Influence of Subordinates. — ** Great 
Sires." — **The Door-parcel."— Door-keepers of Yamuns bribed. — Manda- 
rin's Adviser or Teacher. — Manner of securing his Services. — Six Boards 
of Office in Yamuns Page 294 

CHAPTER XIII. 

MANDARINS AND TUEIB 817BOBDINATES — Continued. 

Mandarins sometimes popular. — '* Umbrellas from ten thousand of the Peo- 
ple." — *' Garments from ten thousand of the People.** — Sons in Office 
obtain Titles of Rank for Parents living or dead. — Peacock Feathers be- 
stowed as Rewards. — Transference of Titles of Honor. — Policemen con- 
nected with Yamnns detested. — Seizing and torturing Relatives of Cul- 
prits. — "White Market." — Mandarins held responsible for large Confla- 
grations. — Manuscript official daily Gazettes. — No Newspapers for the 
Million. — People instructed by public Proclamations. — Exhortations *to 
subscribe Money for the Use of Grovemment. — Office obtained by Purchase 
or by Bribery. — First Class literary Graduates of third Rank enter on 
Office at once. — Legal Modes of Torture and o/ Punishment : Inferior and 
superior Classes. — Wearing the Cangue. — Beating on the Cheeks. — Beat- 
ing on the Posteriors. — Squeezing the Fingers. — Squeezing the Ankles. — 
Imprisonment. — Beheading. — " Cutting into small Pieces" before Decap- 
itation. — Strangulation. — Banishment beyond the Frontiers. — Banishment 
three thousand Li from Home. — Banishment one thousand Li. — Favors 
shown to Criminals by Grace of the Emperor. — Illegal Modes of Torture 
and of Punishment : Fastened on a Bedstead. — Frame of the flowery Eye- 
brow. — Monkey holding a Peach. — Standing in a Cage. — Smoking the 
Head in a Tube. — ^A Shirt made of Iron Wire. — Hot-water Snake. — Whip 
of Hooks. — Kneeling on Chains or Bits of Crockery. — Common but unlaw- 
ful Practices : Relating to Gambling. — Keeping of Brothels. — Private and 
unlicensed Pawn-shops. — Clandestine Manufacture or Sale of Salt. — 
Counterfeiting Bank-bills. — Counterfeiting Cash and deteriorating Sil- 
ver 327 

CHAPTER XrV. 

THE STATE RELIGION. 

Emttneration of some of the Objects worshiped by Mandarins: What is meant 
by State Religion. — Burning Incense bi-monthly. — Venial and autumnal 
Sacrifices. — Confucius, or God of War. — Heaven and Earth. — Processions 
in honor of Spring and of military Utensils. — Goddess of Sailors and 

A 2 




X CONTENTS. 

"Molher.** — Expense defrayed by Government. — Emperor's Birthdays 
and Death celebrated. — Worship of the Flag. — Saving Eclipses of the 
Moon or San. — Seals of Office. — God of the Gate and the Fox.— This 
Worship not performed becanse proper. — No Christian can be a high Offi- 
cer. — Worship of Confucius, illustrating the State Rtligion : Description of 
prefectural Temple to Confucius at Fuhchau. — Its Cost. — Size. — Tablet 
to Confucius. — Autumnal Sacrifice in 1858 witnessed. — Preparatory Re- 
hearsal. — Method of preparing the Articles to be offered. — Incident. — 
Method of arranging the Articles. — Place assigned by the Prefect. — Ar- 
rival of Mandarins and Musicians. — Manner of Worship and presenting 
Food to Confucius. — Musicians and Boys perform with tlicir Instruments. 
— Burning of Silk. — Articles and Animals offered annually in China to 
Confucius. — Manner of national Mourning for the Death of llien Fung^ also 
illustrating the State Religion: Arrival of a Dispatch with tlic Blue Seal from 
Peking. — Time fixed for official Mourniiig. — Shaving, Marriages, and 
Theatricals forbidden for one hundred Days from the Death of the Em- 
peror. — Sign-boards put in Mourning. — Many Marriages celebrated before 
forbidden. — Official Lamentations witnessed. — Mandarins in Mourning. 
— Description of Arrangements. — Ceremony of three Kneclings and nine 
Knockings performed. — ^The Mandarins pretend to Cry Page 853 

CHAPTER XV. 

COMPETITIVE LITERART EXAMINATIONS. 

Primary Schools and Government Colleges: Primary Schools numerous. — 
Manner of Conducting them. — Three Colleges connected with the Gov- 
ernment at Fuhchau. — Two under the Charge of the Governor. — Studies 
pursued in them. — ^Tuition and Room-rent free. — Two hundred and forty 
Students selected for each Annually, after Elxamination of competitive 
Compositions. — One hundred and eighty receive a Monthly Sti{)end. — 
Manner of conducting the Examination of Compositions in the Colleges. — 
One College under the Charge of the Prefect. — Manner of conducting its 
Literary Exercises. — Students in the first two Colleges may belong to any 
Part of the Province. — Students in the other must live in the Prefecture. 
— Examination of Undergraduates before tlte District Magistrate and the 
Prefect: Four Classes may not compete at the Examinations. — Students 
in Mourning for a Parent may not compete. — Notification given by the 
Literary Chancellor of the time of his Examinations. — Manner of enter- 
ing Names of Students as Competitors. — Manner of Competition. — The 
Numbers of the Candidates placarded in Public. — Examination of Under- 
graduates before the Literary Chancellor for the First Degree, and of Grad- 
uates of the First Degree before him preparatory to Comjtetitionfor the Sec- 
ond Degree : Privileged Classes. — Manner of Competition. — Rewriting 
from Memory the Sacred Edict. — Best Competitors, to a certain Number, 
become Bachelors of Arts. — They come under the Jurisdiction of their 
Literary Chiefs. — Bachelorship may be bought. — Privileges of a class of 
Scholars next best to the Graduates. — Graduates expected to make Pres- 
ents to their Securities. — Extra Examination every twelve Years. — Chiefs 




CONTENTS. XI 

of Gradaates rece\Te their Appointment from Peking. — Method of con- 
dacUng Examinations of Graduates preparatory to Competition for Sec- 
ond Degree. — Supplementary Examinations. — Salutes and Music in 
Honor of the three Companies which come ont of the Examinations 
fiprt Page 376 

CHAPTER XVI. 
coMPETrrivE LiTERART EXAMINATIONS — Conttnved, 
Examination of Graduates of the first Degree before the Imperial Commission^ 
ersfor the second Degree : Description of the Provincial Examination Hall. 
—The Commissioners " Wash their Hearts" at the Temple of Perfect 
Justice. — Time of entering the Hall. — Its Regulations. — Order of Proce- 
dure within. — Three Sessions of two Dajrs each. — Names of successful 
Competitors placarded on the Dmm Tower in the City. — Their orig- 
inal Compositions, after ** washing and repairing,** are sent to Peking.-^ 
If a Student dies in the Hall, the Corpse is taken out over the Wall. — 
Graduates of the second Degree go to Peking to compete for the third De- 
gree. — Rfjoidng, Festivities^ and Honors in View ofstuxessftd Competition: 
Lists of Graduates hawked about for Sale. — Messengers ** carry the In- 
formation*' to their Families. — Graduation celebrated by a Feast. — Wor- 
ship of Heaven and Earth and ancestral Tablets. — Graduates of the first 
Degree visit the literary Chancellor and kneel before him. — They Call upon 
their Relations and Friends. — Graduates of the second Degree are invited 
to a Feast at the Governor's Yamun. — After bowing before him, they Call 
npon their Relations and Friends. — Description of the Graduates' Proces- 
sion in making Calls. — If engaged or married, they are invited to a Feast 
at their Father-in-law's House. — Description of the honorary Tablets 
erected by Graduates of the second Degree. — Graduates of the third De- 
gree erect other honorary Tablets. — Special Honors conferred by the Em- 
peror on certain Classes of aged Graduates 401 

CHAPTER XVII. 

COMPETrnTE LTTERART EXAMINATIONS — Continued, 

Just and Ugcd Measures used to prevent Deception : Some of the Rules to be 
observed. — Use of a Stamp an Hour or two after Themes are given out. 
— An Examination of the Number of the Seat occupied by each is made. 
— Some Competitors invited to sit near the Literary Chancellor. — Unjust 
and unlawful Expedients used by Examiners : Graduation occasionally is a 
matter of Favor. — Private Marks or Characters sometimes given certain 
Competitors by which their Compositions can be recognized. — Examiners 
often bribed. — Graduation of certain Persons frequently urged for Friend- 
8hip*s Sake. — Assistants of the Examiners sometimes strongly recommend 
the Essays of certain Candidates. — Unjust and unlawful Exjtedients to sue- 
ceed used btf Competitors : An able Writer is hired to go into the Arena un- 
der the Name of his Employer. — Clerks are bribed to aid in various Ways. 
— '* Exchanging Rolls." — Two Friends try to sit near each other by ex- 




Xli CONTENTS. 

changing Seats with others. — Many Competitors enroll their Names in 
two or more Districts. — Some "ride Horses." — Essays sometimes are 
Written outside, and smuggled into the Hall in small Wax Balls or by 
underground Tunnels. — Sometimes Written outside, and afterward by a 
bribed Clerk mingled among those Written inside. — Sum to be paid for 
literary Help definitely agreed npon. — Military competitive Examinations : 
Skill in Archery and great physical Strength of paramount Importance. 
— Examination 6f military Undergraduates before the District Magistrate, 
Prefect, and Literary Chancellor described. — Examination of Graduates 
of the first military Degree before the Governor for the second Degree. — 
Successful Competitors call upon Friends and Relatives with a Band of 
Music an^ great Pomp. — Bribery less frequent than in literary Competi- 
tions. — Graduates of the second Degree go to Peking to compete for the 
third Page 421 

CHAPTER XVm. 

CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

Prtcodous Youth.^IndigerU StudenU,— Filial and Dutiful Children 444 




ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL I 



Scenery of the Min, West of the Southern Suburbs of FuhchAVL... Frontispiece. 

Bridge of the Cloudy Hilla. Page 26 

View of the Southern Suburbs of Fuhchau 29 

Gentleman riding in a Sedan, with a Servant on Foot 32 

Pagoda 35 

Plowing with the domesticated Buffalo 60 

Carrying Bundles of Grain 61 

Threshing Grain 61 

Hulling Rice 62 

Irri^^ation by means of an Endless Chain-pump 54 

Fishing with Cormorants 56 

Country Scene near Fuhchau 64 

Bridal Sedan 78 

Part of a Bridal Procession en route to the House of the Bridegroom on 

the Wedding-day 81 

Bride and Bridegroom worshiping the Tablets of his deceased Ancestors 85 

Bride and Bridegroom drinking Samshu together 87 

Bride and Bridegroom taking their Wedding Dinner 89 

Charm to ward off Evil Spirits from a Bride 95 

Honorary Stone Portal to the Memory of Virtuous and Filial Widows... Ill 

Shaving a Child's Head when one Month Old 123 

Child sitting on a Chair when four Months Old 124 

Grasping Playthings when one Year Old 125 

Father leaching his Child to Worship 126 

Passing through the Door 128 

Bringing back the Soul of the Sick into his Clothes on the Bamboo 150 

Priest ascending a Ladder of Knives 153 

Goddess of SmalUpox 154 

Tall \Miitc Devil 158 

Short Black Devil 158 

Worshiping with Incense and Stool 163 

Wearing the Cangue as a token of Gratitude ". 165 

Taming around the Bridge-ladder 171 

Eldest Son dressed in Mourning and canying the Filial Staff 184 

Part of a Funeral Procession 201 

White Cock on a Coffin luring Homo one of the Spirits of the Dead.... 214 

Ancestral Tablet representing one Person 219 

Worshiping the Ancestral Tablet in iu Niche 223 




XIV ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. L 

Censer Page 223 

Distant View of Kushan, t. «., Drum Mountain 238 

Buddhist Priest 240 

The Three Precious Ones 245 

The Three Pure Ones 249 

Professor of Ceremony 251 

Buddhist Nun with Cap and Rosary 254 

Ma Chu, the Goddess of Sailors, and her two Assistants. 262 

Kuang Ta, Chinese God ofWar 267 

Kue Sing, a God of Literature 268 

God of Thieves 274 

Boat carried in Procession on Men's Shoulders 281 

Carrying the Happy Buckets. 282 

Carrying Instruments of Punishment and of Torture 282 

Buffalo-headed Assistant 285 

Horse-faced Assistant 285 

Tiger grasping a large Cash : a God of Gambling 289 

Goddess of Midwifery and Children sitting on a Tiger 290 

One of the Nine Genii shooting a Dog in the Heavens 291 

Mandarin and his Wife in Robes of State 296 

Lictor with Whip in Hand 299 

Bearer of Fan of State 300 

Bearer of Umbrella of State 301 

Lictor dragging along the half of a Bamboo 301 

Executioner 302 

Mandarin saring the Sun when Elclipsed 309 

Squeezing the Fingers 336 

Squeezing the Ankles 337 

Carrying forth to the Place of Execution 338 

Just before DecapiUtion 338 

Fastened on a Bedstead 341 

Three Kinds of Tortures (taken from Canton pith-paper pictures) 342 

Monkey grasping a Peach (culprit suspended by the arm-pit) 343 

Standing on Tiptoe in a Cage 344 

Hot-water Snake 346 

Flag-bearer, or God of the Flag 366 

Traditional Likeness of Confucius 360 

Traditional Likeness of Mencius 361 

Traditional Likeness of Chufutze. 361 

Chinese Gentleman, or One of the Gentry 369 

School-boy with Fan and Parcel of Books 377 

Pupil **Backinghi8 Book," t. «., Reciting his Lesson 377 

Literary Undergraduate or Student 385 

A Kujin, or Literary Graduate of the Second Degree 416 

Military Candidates competing with the Bow and Arrow 440 




EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

Qngme. — A heavy wooden collar, three or four feet in diameter, put upon 
the neck of a culprit for a specified time, and thus exposed in the street as a 
punishroenL 

Cask, — The only Chinese coin in use, made of copper or brass. Modem 
cash have four Chinese characters upon the obverse. Two of these are the 
title of the emperor during whose reign it was coined. The other charac- 
ters imply that the coin is current every where. It has a square hole in the 
centre, used for stringing it. Coins of the present dynasty have the name 
of the mint where they were coined in Manchu characters on the reverse. 

Cenger. — Utensil used for holding incense while burning before the object 
of worship, generally made of brass, iron, or earthenware. 

t%op8tid:s — Small pieces of bamboo, six or eight inches long, and &s lai^ 
as a penholder, usually square, painted or unpainted, used in eating instead 
of knives and forks. Sometimes they arc made of ivory or bone. They are 
held in the right hand between thumb and forefinger. 

Ciassica. — Term applied to the writings of Confucius, Mcncius, and other 
ancient Chinese. Also applied to the formulas and contents of Buddhist 
and Tauist books. 

Compradort. — Chinese head manager Steward for household matters. 

Congte. — Rice porridge, or thick gruel made by boiling rice soft in water. 

Coohe. — Common house laborer, porter, or sedan-bearer. One who does 
coarse and heavy work. 

CW — Braided tress of long hair, growing from the crown of the head, and 
dangling down the back. 

Gobetween, — Agent or middle person, either male or female, employed in 
the transaction of important business. 

Godown. — Usually a one-stoned building where goods are kept. A ware- 
house. 

//01157. — The building used for offices or counting-rooms, or where sales 
and purchases are made. Sometimes goods are stored in them. The term 
Is occasiunnlly applied to dwelling-houses. 

Ia. — Chinese mile, equal to about one third of an English mile. 

Afaniiarin. — Common name among foreigners for Chinese officers. A 
word of Portuguese origin. 

Afock Ciothing. — Sheets of paper on which rude pictures of various kinds 
of clothing have been sumped. Also sheets of paper of various colors, rep- 
resenting materials for clothing, as pieces of silk, satins, and cotton goods. 
By the potency of a charm this paper is believed to become clothing, or ma- 
terials for clothing, and may be used by those for whom it is designed in 
the world of spirits. 




XVI EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

Mock Money, — Sheets of paper of varioas sizes, having tinfoil pasted npon 
them. If the tinfoil is colored yellow, it represents gold ; if ancolored, sil- 
ver. Coarse paper, having holes in it, represents cash. Pieces of paste- 
board, in size and appearance like Carolus dollars, with tinfoil on their sides, 
represent silver dollars. These' are believed to become, when bnmed in 
idolatrous worship, silver, gold, cash, or dollars, according to color and shape, 
which may be used by the divinity or the deceased person for whom they are 
designed. 

Samshuy or Chinese Wine. — Common name for Chinese distilled spirits or 
whisky, made usually out of rice, millet, or potatoes. The word wine is fre- 
quently used in speaking of this whisky. 

Sedan. — A portable chair or seat, usually covered, and borne on the shoul- 
ders of two or more men by means of poles fastened to the sides. 

Sycee. — Lumps or ingots of silver, weighing five, ten, twenty-five, or fifty 
taels, more or less. 

Tablet. — Wooden or stone representative of the dead. An ancestral tablet 
represents one or more ancestors, according to its inscription and shape, and 
is made of wood. 

Taei. — An ounce and a third of silver, value about one dollar and^ne 
third. ^ 

Tepaou. — A village or neighborhood officer, performing, in part, the du- 
ties of a policeman. 

Tijffin. — Lunch, or slight repast between breakfast and dinner. 

Yamvn. — ^The official residence of mandarins. 




SOCIAL LIFE OF THE CHINESE. 



•li^pl'ic 



INTROUpilON. 

Location of Fuhchau. — Sixe and Popniation. — Rank. — Residence of high 
Officials. — Literary Centre, — Foreign Trade, when commenced. — Sta- 
tistics of Tea Trade. — Imports. — Exports to Chinese Ports. — Manchu 
Tartars,, their Character. — Faithful to the Peking Government. — Pagoda 
Anchorage. — Scenery of the Min. — Knshao, or Drum Mountain. — Ap- 
proach to Fuhchau. — Middle Island. — Bridge of 10,000 Ages.— Bridge of 
the Cloudy Hills. — Scenery and Prospects. — Banian City. — Streets nar- 
row. — Construction of Shops. — Goods, UoMV transported. — Hills arc Grave- 
yards. — Horse-shoe, or Omega Graves. — How Traveling is i)erformcd. — 
Mission of American Board. — Mission of Methodist Episcopal Church. — 
Mission of English Church. — Distribution of Books and portions of Scrip- 
ture at literary Examinations. — Swedish Mission. — Native Mohammed- 
ans. — Roman Catholic Church and Mission. — European Priests former- 
ly persecuted. — Difference htlgnrn Romish and Protestant Missionary 
Work. — Romanist Tracts nc$ cfi>culatedin Public.— Religion of Heaven's 
Lord different from the American Religion. — Similarities between Roman- 
ism and Buddhism. — Various Sentimentf. 

FunciiAU, as the name of the city is know^ among for- 
eigners, being according to the Mandarin pronunciation ; Hok- 
chiu, as known to its inhabitants, according to the local pro- 
nanciation — the " Happy Region" — is the capital of the prov- 
ince of Fnh-kicn. It is situated about thirty-five miles from 
the mouth of the River Min, and two and a half miles from 
its northern bank, in a valley fifteen miles in diameter from 
north to south. Its longitude is 119° 20' Ea.st, and latitude 
26° 05' North, a little farther south than the most southern 
point of Florida. Of the five ports opened to foreign trade 
and residence at the close of the Opium War, by treaties made 
in 1842-44 between Cliina and England, France, and the 
United States, Fuhchau occupies the central position, being 




18 INTRODUCTION. 

situated between Amoy on the south and Ningpo on the 
north, and about equally distant from Canton and Shanghai. 

Fuhchau is a walled city, having seven massive gates, which 
are shut at nightfall and opened at daybreak. Over each of 
the gates are high towers, overlooking and commanding the 
approach to them. At intervals on the walls are built small 
guard-houses. The walls are from twenty to twenty-five feet 
high, and from twelve to twenty feet wide, composed of earth 
and stones. The inner and outer surfaces are faced with stone 
or brick, and the top is paved with granite flag-stones. The 
circuit of the walls is about seven miles, and can be traversed 
on the top on foot, or in sedan-chairs, affording a variety of 
novel and interesting views in quick succession. Outside of 
each gate are suburbs. The southern suburb, known to the 
Chinese under the general name of Nantai, extends south- 
ward toward Amoy nearly four miles. Outside of the east, 
west, and southwestern gates there are also extensive suburbs. 
The suburbs outside of the three most northern gates, two of 
which lie on the eastern side of the city, are far less extensive 
and important than the other four. 

The population of the city and suburbs has never been ac- 
curately, and therefore satisfactorily ascertained. The inhab- 
itants of the seven suburbs are believed to be as numerous as 
the inhabitants of the city itself. The population of both has 
been estimated by residents and visitors at all figures, from 
600,000 to 1,250,000. Including the people dwelling in boats, 
who are quite numerous, it probably would not be far out of 
the way to say that the population amounts to 1,000,000. A 
few years ago it was reported at Fuhchau that a certain man- 
darin had informed the English consul that the people within 
the city walls numbered 500,000. 

Like Canton, Fuhchau is a city of the first rank, being not 
only the capital of Fuh-kien province and the residence of its 
governor, but also the official and actual residence of a vice- 
roy, or governor general, whose jurisdiction extends over Fuh- 
kien and Chekiang, its adjacent northern province. The word 
fu, sometimes affixed to its name, as Fuhchau-fu, indicates that 
it is the chief city of a prefecture or department, and, so con- 
sidered, it has the same rank as Ningpo. It is also the resi- 
dence of two district magistrates, the boundary-line of whoso 




FOREIGN TRADE AT FUHCHAU. 19 

districts passes through the city from north to soath. Be- 
sides, it is the residence of a large number of civil and military 
officers of high grade. Among them are the Tartar general, 
who is of the same rank as the viceroy, the provincial criminal 
judge, the provincial treasurer, the commissioners of the salt 
and the provision departments for the whole province, and 
the literary chancellor. It is the political, literary, and com- 
mercial centre of a province, whose area is over 53,000 square 
miles, and whose population, according to the census taken in 
1812, was then more than 14,500,000. A census taken in 1842 
makes its population over 25,000,000. There are always at 
this city a large number of expectants of office of high grade 
awaiting their actual appointments. Numerous gentry reside 
here, who have retired from office in other parts of the em- 
pire. 

It is a great literary centre, not simply because it is the offi- 
cial residence of the imperial commissioner, the literary chan- 
cellor, but because there are many men living here of high lit- 
erary attainments in a Chinese sense, and also because all of 
the literary graduates of the first degree over the province 
of Fuh-kien, which includes the large island of Formosa, must 
appear at Fuhchau twice every five years to compete in the 
provincial examination hall for the second degree, if they de- 
sire to compete for that degree at all. Usually six or eight 
thousand of the educated talent of the whole province assem- 
ble here on these interesting and exciting occasions. 

Legitimate foreign trade at Fuhchau was insignificant until 
1 8g3^ The opium trade had been extensively carried on for 
several years previous to that period by means of receiving- 
ships stationed near the mouth of the Min. In 1 853, Fuh- 
chau cara^^fiuddfiialy into importance as a market for black 
teas^ nij^uly thnnngh t^^ ^xnt^^prUr^ nf T\[fi§firp Rngtgo]j /t^ Pn ^ 
an American firm. Previous to this year no teas were shipped 
directly from this port to any foreign country. In tlie si)ring 
of that year the American firm mentioned sent frppi Shang; - 
hai their Chinese agents into the tea districts lying nej\r the 
western &n(l nonhwcsiefirEorJcrs oT this P^'ovince^andjbouglit 
up lar ge quantities of tea, and had it ti^spo rted m s mall boa ts 
d 6Wh the Kiver Mm to this city, by the jTrneTnvas ready 
for shipment foreign vessels arrivedjiccprdijig to agreement, 




20 INTRODUCTION. 

rsmd took the tea Qirect'tQ foreign c o untrie s. In that year 
^ fourteen foreign vessels arri[ved at iV iTirfii^if, ^^ jIn 1856 one 



tew Statistics will show the rapid growth of the tea trade 
at this place. The exports of tea to foreign countries in the 
year 1856-'57, from April 30th, from CantopVfWQS 21,359,865 
lbs.; from Shanghai^ 36,919,064 lbs.; and from Fuhchau^ 
34,019,000 lbs. ; and that only three years after the trade was 
^commenced at the latter port. During the tea season, be- 
iuning with July, 1859, the exports of tea from Canton to 
jthe United States amounted to 3,558,424 lbs. ; from Araoy, 
p,265,100 lbs.; from Shanghai, 6,893,900 lbs.; and from Fuh- 
fchau , 11,293.60 lbs. ; the quantity sent from Fuhchau being 
nearly one million pounds more than the combined amount 
sent from Canton and Shanghai. During the same period 
Canton sent to Great Britain 41,586,000 lbs.; Shanghai sent 
12,331,000 lbs.; Fuhchau sent 36,085,000 lbs., or about two 
thirds as much as both Shanghai and Canton. In the tea sea- 
son, 1863-'64, ending with May 31st, Fuhchau sent to Great 
Britain 43,500,000 lbs. ; to Australia, 8,300,000 lbs. ; and to 
the United States, 7,000,000 lbs. ; in all amounting to more 
than fifty-eight millions of pounds. From these data the rel- 
ative commercial importance of Fuhchau is easily seen. It has 
become by rapid strides one of the most important of the con- 
sular ports in China for the purchase of black teas. It was 
currently reported in 1850-'51 that the English government 
seriously contemplated giving it up, or at least exchanging it 
for some other port whenever an opportunity should occur, 
because it had no commercial importance. 

In exchange for its tea, which is the principal export from 
Fuhchau, to foreign countries, it receives opium, cotton and 
woolen goods, silver, and a few unimportant articles. In the 
year ending December 31st, 1863, the imports into Fuhchau 
from foreign lands amounted to over ten and a half millions 
of dollars. Of this sum, the value of the opium imported was 
over five millions. Unlike Shanghai and Canton, it furnishes 
no silk for exportation. 

It has a large trade with other ports on the sea-coast by 
means of native craft, as well as in foreign vessels, giving and 
receiving some of the luxuries and the necessaries of life. Fre- 




CONCEBNING THE MANCHU POPULATION. 21 

qaently rice is imported in large qaantities from Formosa 
and from Siam. An immense amount of timber and paper is 
bronght down the Min from the upper or western portions of 
the province, and taken to various ports north and south. It 
annoally exports large qaantities of dned and preserved fruits. 
Twelve and fifteen years ago, not unfrequently there were sev- 
eral hundred Chinese junks in the harbor at the same time, 
discharging and receiving cargo. Of late years, many Chinese 
merchants charter foreign ships to carry away and bring back 
produce and merchandise, on account of their increased speed 
and safety compared with Chinese crafts. Native junks al- 
most always come up the river and anchor opposite the city. 

While the high native officials, civil and military, live within 
the city, the foreign consuls, vice-consuls, and interpreters re- 
side two and a half miles outside the city, on the hill near the | 
south bank of the Min. No foreign merchant lives in the city, 
nor is there any foreign hong or store inside the walls. The 
principal native wholesale merchants do their business in the 
immense suburbs surrounding the Great Temple Hill. The 
principal native banks are also in the southern suburbs. 

A part of the eastern and southern sections of the city is 
devoted, though not exclusively, to the residence of Manchu 
Tartars. They are subject, not to Chinese, but to Tartar offi- 
cers. There is no wall dividing them from the Chinese, as has 
been sometimes represented. A few Cliinese live scattered 
about in the sections originally given up to the Tartar popula- 
tion. The Manchus number at present probably between ten 
and fifteen thousand. All of the males professedly belong to 
the army, though the number of those who actually receive pay 
in money, and rations in rice monthly, as soldiers, is said to be 
limited to one thousand. When any of their number dies, 
another Tartar takes his place on the roll of soldiers, and suc- 
ceeds to his salary and perquisites. These soldiers are not 
called away from Fnhchau to serve in the army, but remain at 
home, assisting when called upon to guard and keep the city. 
They spend their time principally in the practice of archery, 
horsemanship, and shooting at a mark with matchlock guns. 
Until late years none of them engaired in nny business for the 
sake of gain. But poverty has driven a few to open shops, 
where some of the commonest articles are offered for sale. 




22 INTRODUCTION. 

They generally speak among themselves the Mandarin or court 
dialect, though some understand the Manchn language. Most 
or all are able to speak the colloquial dialect. They are not 
noted for their knowledge of Chinese literature. Within a 
few years, more have applied themselves to the study of Chi- 
nese books than formerly. As a class, they are indolent, ig- 
norant, and proud. 

They have the reputation of being overbearing and insolent 
toward the Chinese — a natural and almost inevitable conse- 
quence of their relative positions. They are the masters and 
the lords ; the Chinese are subjects. The Manchu and the 
Chinese men shave their heads and braid their cues alike ; the 
former having obliged the latter nearly two hundred years 
ago to adopt the Manchurian national costume of dressing 
their hair. The Manchu ladies do not compress their feet as 
do the upper class of Chinese ladies at this place, and in this 
respect compare favorably with them. They are of a large 
frame, more noble in appearance, and more independent in ac- 
tion, than are the Chinese females. The same remark is true 
of the Manchu men compared with the Chinese men. The 
two races are not allowed to intermarry. 

The Tartars here are descendants of a colony of Tartars 
who came from Peking by the will of the emperor in the early 
part of the present dynasty. They regard themselves as dis- 
tantly related to the imperial family, and all owe their support 
to the favor of the government. They may be always relied 
upon by the Peking government as faithful to it under all cir- 
cumstances. In the result of a successful rebellion against the 
government, in case they should not be able to make their es- 
cape to the land of their forefathers, an extremely doubtful 
event, they would all lose not only their salaries and their 
property, but also their heads ; for no successful rebel emperor 
would allow any of the Tartars to live in the country. 

Foreign vessels of large tonnage anchor about ten miles be- 
low the city of Fuhchan, at Pagoda Anchorajsre, so called on 
account of a pagoda built on a hill on an island in the vicinity. 
Above that anchorage the water is too shallow for large ves- 
sels to endeavor to proceed with safety. Here the mail steam- 
ers, which arrive usually at least once in two weeks, come to 
anchor, sending the mails up to town in a small but well- 




SCENERY ON THE BANKS OF THE HIN. 23 

manned boat. Not unfrequently are there twenty-five or 
thirty sailing vessels and steamers of several different nation- 
alities to be found at Pagoda Anchorage, discharging and re- 
ceiving their cargoes, where thirteen years ago there was not 
one foreign vessel. The vessels lie in the middle of the Min, 
and their cargoes are transferred into lighters, which ply be- 
tween the town and the anchorage. 

The entrance to the river is marked by bold peaks and high 
land — unlike the entrance to the Yang-tse-Kiang, en route to 
Shanghai from the China Sea, or the entrance of the White 
River atTaku, en route to Tientsin and Peking from the Gulf 
of Pechele. Foreign pilots usually take the charge of vessels 
until they have fairly entered the river, when they yield to 
native pilots, who navigate them until they reach Pagoda 
Anchorage. The banks of the Min are lined by lofty hills, gen- 
erally destitute of thrifty trees. Many of the hills are terraced 
and cultivated to their tops, presenting in the spring and sum- 
mer an interesting and unique appearance. The foreign vis- 
itor never fails to admire the charming and romantic scenery 
lying between the mouth of the Min and the anchorage. It 
has been thought by some European travelers to resemble the 
scenery of Switzerland in its picturesqucness and grandeur. 
Americans are more frequently reminded by it of the High- 
lands of the Hudson. 

The Min having separated into two parts six or eight miles 
above Fuhchau, the branches unite not far above the anchor- 
age, and their waters flow together into the ocean. The city 
of Fuhchau lies to the north of the northern branch. The 
southern branch passes nearly parallel with the northern, the 
two forming a narrow and fertile island, fifteen or sixteen 
miles in length, and three or four miles in width in its broad- 
est part. 

Following up the northern branch of the river from the 
Pagoda Anchorage, about half way to Fuhchau, on the right 
hand, is the mountain called Kushan, or Drum Mountain. Its 
peak is about half a mile high. A large and celebrated Bud- 
dhist monastery is situated half way up the mountain, a favor- 
ite place of resort with some foreigners and Chinese in the hot 
soromer months. The temperature at the monastery is some- 
times eight or ten degrees lower than in the city in the valley 




24 INTRODUCTION. 

below. The monastery takes its name, the ^^Bubhlmg Ifbtrnt- 
airiy^^ from a spring of clear cold water in its vicinity. Several 
score of Buddhist priests are usually found at the monastery, 
where they spend their time in studying the rituals of their 
order, and in the performance of the regular religious rites 
and ceremonies. The landscape of the valley of the Min, 
viewed on a clear summer's day from the top of the mountain 
or from its side, is very fine, consisting of numerous small 
streams and canals running in all directions, several scores of 
hamlets dotting the country, and rice-fields in a high state of 
cultivation. These, once seen, are not soon forgotten. 

Soon after passing Kushan, proceeding up the river, two 
lofty pagodas become visible, three or four miles distant, sit- 
uated on the right hand, and inside the city, near the south- 
ern gate. A lofty watch-tower marks the extreme northern 
angle of the city. The foreign hongs and the flag-staffs of the 
English, American, and other consuls, gradually become more 
and more distinct, lying principally on the left hand, on the 
southern bank of the Min. The hongs and residences of for- 
eign merchants, missionaries, and officials, being built in for- 
eign style, afford a pleasing and striking contrast to the shops 
and houses of the Chinese. From some parts of the river op- 
posite the city, the brick chapel belonging to the Methodist 
Mission, and the stone church where a chaplain of the Church 
of England officiates, both located on the hill near the south- 
ern bank of the river, can be readily recognized by their bel- 
fries. • 

In the Min, abreast of the city, is a small, densely-populated 
island, called Chung Chau by foreign merchants, and Tong 
Chiu by the natives, t.€., ^^ Middle Islayid^ It is connected 
with the northern bank of the river by the celebrated " Bridge 
of 10,000 AgeSy^ or the Big Bridge. This bridge* is reported 
to have been built eight hundred years ago, and is about one 
quarter of a mile long, and thirteen or fourteen feet wide. It 
has nearly forty solid buttresses, situated at unequal distances 
from each other, shaped like a wedge at the upper and lower 
ends, and built of hewn granite. Immense stones, some of 
them nearly three feet square, and forty-five feet long, extend 
from buttress to buttress, acting as sleepers. Above theso 
Ptono sleepers a granite platform is made. On the sides of 




STONE BRIDGES AT FrilCHAU. 27 

ilic l>ri Jgc are strong stone railings, the stone rails being mor- 
ticcil into large stone pillars or posts. I'ntil eight or nine 
yearn ago the top of the bntige was partly taken up with 
i^ho|N^ Now the whole of the bridge is do voted to the use 
of passengers, and the conveyance of merchandise to and fro. 
TLv bridge connecting Middle Island with the south bank of 
the river, called the ^^Hridge in front of the (salt) (Tranarics/* 
i* built in a similar manner, but is only about one fourth as 
long as tbo Big Bridge. Lighters antl other boats whuli 
ha\c rao%'able masts pass under the Big Bridge, but the junks 
from Ningpo, Amoy, and other phucs, which come up the 
river, anchor below these bridges and Middle Island. There 
are no ferry-boats which ply regularly botwci'U the north an<l 
Kiuth banks of the Min, though there are numerous boat> 
which can be hired for a few cents whenever necessary to 
cross ibo river above and ]>elow the bridges. From early 
dawn antil nightfall these britlges are usually thronire<l by 
iravclcni on foot or m sedans, and by coolies carry nig prod- 
ace and merchandise back and forth. 

To the northwest, and distant six or seven miles across the 
Miii,ui anotlier celebrateil stone bridge, called soiuetimes the 
*• Bridge of the C'Kmdy Hills." That and the liiu' Britlge are 
built ID a similar manner. The scenery in its vicinity is 
moantainous and interesting. 

The foreign residents live principally on the hill near the 
Mathem bank of the Slin. Standing on that hill, aii«l looking 
toward the cast, north, ami west, the scenery is beautiful. To 
*dic eastward, booming up five or m\ miles distant, is ''Drum 
M'unlaun.*' Nearer is the river, with it** multitUile of jimk-* 
iii<l boats. As one glances in a more northern direction, part< 
cf ihe city come within range. In it the white pairiMhi and 
ihe watch-tower are prominent objects. Between the city 
»&d the river, apparently almul miilway, may be »iii!i tin* r-'i-f 
Ukd bi-lfry of a brick church bel«»ni:ii»ij to the Mi^siun i-f the 
American Board. In the city IMack Wiiik Hill is c<>Ms|.i,!i. 
cas, and nearer, in the suburbs, are >een ( tre:it Temple Hill ar.d 
icreral spacious foreign hongs. To the northwest and tin* 
*«l the numerous boats on the river an- 1 the distant hi IN 
prf^cnt a diversifh*d an«l strikinir appearance. 
From the top of the (ireat Temple Hill, looking towanl the 




28 INTBODUOTION. 

south, the prospect is also fine. Probably there is not a bet- 
ter stand-point in the suburbs than that hill for taking a view 
of the most prominent objects to be seen in the valley of the 
Min. The river, spread out to the west, south, and east, cov- 
ered with its countless boats, the bridges on each side of Mid- 
dle Island, with their passing throng, foreign hongs, the Brit- 
ish consulate, flag-staffs and flags of various nationalities, etc., 
always interest the beholder. In the distance to the south- 
ward, the hills called the Five Tigers, and other ranges, add va- 
riety and picturesqueness to the scenery. To the east and to 
the west are highly-cultivated plains, villages, canals, etc. On 
the north the city is seen much more distinctly than from the 
hill on the southern bank of the river. 

Fuhchau contains within its walls three principal hills, two 
in its southern and one in its northern quarter. On account 
of these hills it is sometimes called in writing and in books 
the Three JBiUs, It is also frequently styled the City of Ban- 
ians, or the Banian City, on account of the great number of 
mock banian-trees which are growing every where in the city 
and vicinity. The branches of this species of banian seldom 
extend to the ground and take root, like the Indian banian, 
though they sometimes thus take root. The pendent branches 
look so much like whiskers that the common name for them 
among the Chinese is the whiskers of the banian. They 
hang down several feet from the main horizontal branches, 
and swing back and forth in the breeze. A single tree with 
its outstretched branches sometimes shades a space of ground 
from one hundred to one hundred and fifly feet in diameter. 

The streets of the suburbs and the city are narrow and 
filthy. They oflentimes are not as wide as a medium-sized 
side-walk in cities in Western lands. Some of the principal 
streets in places are so narrow that two sedans can not pass 
each other. One must seek a wide spot and stop while the 
other passes along. Shop-keepers are in the practice of taking 
up part of the street in front of their establishments with their 
movable sign-boards, which are over a foot wide, placed in a 
perpendicular position, making the street actually allotted to 
the public so much the narrower. The eaves of the stores 
and native hongs are so arranged that, in case of rain, the wa- 
ter falls down into the middle of the street. There are no 




MANNER OF CARRYING MERCHANDISE. 81 

eave-troughs in use. It is impossible in a hard shower for 
one to pass through the streets, even with an umbrella, and 
escape a thorough wetting. 

There are no glass windows in the fronts or sides of shops 
and stores in Fuhchau. The front part of stores, etc., is con- 
structed of upright movable boards fitted into grooves in two 
pieces of timber, one fastened on or near the door-sill, and one 
put at the top of the front of the room. These boards are 
numbered, and may be taken down and put up again expedi- 
tiously. At night they are slipped into the grooves, and fast- 
ened securely on the inside. In the morning they are taken 
down, letting the passer-by see all that is transacted in the 
store, and furnishing all the light that is needed. In storms 
the wind oftentimes blows the rain into the cstablbhment ; in 
cold weather the clerks and customers are exposed to chilling 
draughts of wind. Usually the whole front sides of the shops, 
facing the street, except a passage-way to the back, is occu- 
pied by a counter about four feet high. 

The streets are paved with granite flag-stones. In case of 
a hill occurring in the street, it is ascended and descended by 
means of a flight of stone steps. On this account, even if the 
streets were wide enough, no wheeled vehicle could be used 
m them. Merchandise, furniture, etc., are carried to and fro 
through the streets by coolies. If the load is about a hundred 
pounds' weight, or les^, and can be divided into two equal 
parts, not too bulky, each part is slung by means of ropes on 
the ends of a carrying-pole, four or five feet long, which is 
placed across the shoulder of the coolie. It is thus carried to 
Its destination, one part coming before and the other part 
coming behind the bearer. It can not be carried crosswise 
or at right angles to the street, for that course would prevent 
oftentimes any one passing from an opposite direction; it 
would generally occupy nearly all the street. Bulky and 
heavy articles, too bulky and too heavy to bo thus carried by 
one man, are slung upon the centre of a strong carrying-pole, 
six or more feet in length. The ends of the pole are placed 
upon the shoulders of two or more men, and the load carried 
between them. Sometimes eight, or sixteen, or a greater 
number of persons are required to carry heavy articles in this 
manner. Occasionally a load is carried on the shoulder or 
the back, steadied by the hands of its bearer. 




32 



INTRODUCTTION. 



The roads in the country are narrow, and not adapted to 
traveling or transporting merchandise in carts or wagons. 
Oftentimes they are paved with granite, and only wide enough 
for two to walk abreast with ease and safety. Every five or 
ten li, on the most traveled roads, there are rest-houses, where 
the tired traveler or coolie may stop and refresh himself. 
There are no toll-gates in this section of the empire. 

Traveling on land is performed on foot or by sedan-chairs, 
carried, in the case of a civilian, by two or three men. Offi- 




UKNTLXMAM BIUIMO IM ▲ BSDAK, WITU A HKKVAMT OM FUOT. 

cers of a certain grade may have four bearers. Those of the 
highest rank may have eight bearers. Military officers of a 
low rank, and a class of interpreters or assistants of high civil 
mandarins, sometimes ride through the streets on ponies, but 
the common people never ride on horseback. In case it horse 
is rode through the crowded streets, a boy or the groom pre- 
cedes, crying out " Horse !" " horse !" and clears the way, else 
various accidents would often occur. 

The hills in the vicinity of the city and suburbs of Fuhchau 
are devoted principally to burying the dead, the valleys and 




MISSION OF THE AMERICAN BOABD. 33 

the level land to the residences of the living. While foreign- 
ers prefer to reside in elevated and airy positions, as on the 
sides or the summits of hills, the Chinese reserve these situa- 
tions for the sepulchres of their honored dead. The gi-aves 
of the poor Chinese are made much at random on the hills, on 
spots where they succeed in securing the privilege of digging 
them ; while the sites for the graves of the wealthy are de- 
termined by the nice rules of the art of Geomancy, d la Chi- 
nois^ having especial reference to the future good fortunes of 
the families of the living. No dead body may be buried in- 
side the city, nor may a corpse be carried into any of the gates 
of the city. It may not enter the city on any consideration, 
no matter how high the rank of the deceased, or how influen- 
tial and respected his family. The most fashionable form for 
a grave and its surroundings, considered as a whole, is what 
by foreigners is usually called the horse-shoe pattern, from its 
general resemblance to a horse-shoe. It is also called some- 
times the Omega grave, from its reiemblance to the Greek 
letter Omega. The rich spend a large sum of money in erect- 
bg the grave-stones, and in embellishing the sides and the 
front of the grave. In the case of high ofllicers, there are 
often large granite images of a pair of horses, sheep, and other 
animals, arranged some distance in front of the spot on which 
the corpse is buried. One of each kind of animal is placed on 
the right and left hand sides, corresponding to each other. 
Occasionally there are two granite images or statues of men, 
arranged in like manner. These granite images, some of 
which are larger than life, seem to take the place of pillars 
and monuments, so common at the West, in connection with 
the tombs of the distinguished dead. 

The first Protestant Mission at Fuhchau was established by 
a missionary of the American Board of Commissioners for 
Foreign Missions in January, 1847. The Mission has aver- 
aged three or four families since its commencement. In 
April, 1856, occurred the first baptism of a Chinaman at this 
city in connection with Protestant Missions. In May, 1857, a 
brick church, called the " Church of the Savior," built on the 
main street in the southern suburbs, and about one mile from 
the Big Bridge, was dedicated to the worship of God. Its 
first native church, consisting of four members, was organ- 

B2 




84 INTRODUCTION. 

ized in October of the same year. In May, 1863, a church of 
seven members was formed at Chang-loh, distant seventeen 
miles from the city. In June of the same year a church of 
nine members was organized in the city of Fuhchau, having 
been dismissed from the church in the suburbs to form the 
church in the city. For the first ten years of this Mission's 
existence only one was baptized. During the next five years 
twenty-two members were received into the first church 
formed. During the next two years twenty-three persons 
were baptized. Between 1853 and 1858 a small boarding- 
school, ^. e., a school where the pupils were boarded, clothed, 
and educated at the expense of the Mission, was sustained in 
this Mission. Among the pupils were four or five young 
men, who are now employed as native helpers, and three girls, 
all of whom became church members, and two of whom are 
wives of two of the native helpers. There are at present a 
training-school for native helpers, and a small boarding-school 
for boys, and a small bo*arding-school for girls connected with 
the Mission. It employs six or seven native helpers, and 
three or four country stations are occupied by it. Part of 
the members of this Mission live at Ponasang, not far from 
the Church of the Savior, and part live in the city, on a hill 
not far from the White Pagoda, in houses built and owned by 
the American Board. 

The Mission of the Methodist Episcopal Church was estab- 
lished in the fall of 1847. It has had an average number of 
four or five families. In 1857 it baptized the first convert in 
connection with its labors. In August, 1856, a brick church, 
called the " Church of the True God," the first substantial 
church building erected at Fuhchau by Protestant Missions, 
was dedicated to the worship of God. It is located near 
Tating, on the main street, in the southern suburbs, about two 
thirds the way between the Big Bridge and the city. In the 
winter of the same year another brick church, located on the 
hill in the suburbs on the south bank of the Min, was finished 
and dedicated, called the " Church of Heavenly Rest." Id 
the fall of 1864 this Mission erected a commodious brick 
church on East Street, in the city. Its members reside prin- 
cipally on the hill on which the Church of Heavenly Rest is 
built. One family lives at a country station ten or twelve 




METHODIST MISSION. 



36 




miles from Fuhchan. This Mission has received great and 
signal encouragement in several country villages and farming 
districts, as well as in the city and suburbs. It has some 
eight or ten country stations, which are more or less regularly 
visited by the foreign missionaries, and where native helpers 
are appointed to preach regularly. It has a flourishing boys' 
boarding-school, and a flourishing girls' boarding-school, and 
a printing-press. At the close of 1863 there were twenty-six 
probationary members of its native churches, and ninety-nine 
in full communion. It employs ten or twelve native helpers. 
It has established a system of regular quarterly meetings and 
an annual conference in conformity with the discipline of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church. 

The English Church Missionary Society established a Mis- 
sion at Fuhchau in the spring of 1850. 'It has met with many 




86 INTRODUOTION. 

reverses, and has not averaged two families. Its members 
have always resided within the city on Black Rock Hill. It 
has two large chapels, located on South and on Back Streets, 
two of the most important streets in the city. It employs two 
or three native helpers, and has ten or fifteen baptized Chinese 
under its care and instruction. 

Many of the small chapels, and some of the largo church 
buildings, in connection with these three Missions, whether in 
the city, or in the suburbs, or at the country stations, are open- 
ed daily for preaching in Chinese. All who please to come in 
are welcomed. 

All these Missions have in former years distributed, in large 
numbers, tracts and parts of the Scriptures prepared in the 
general language of the country. A considerable number, 
prepared in the local dialect, have also been published. The 
Methodist Mission in 1864 completed the translation and pub- 
lication of the New Testament in the local dialect. 

In some years, at the regular literary examinations of can- 
didates for the first and for the second degree at Fuhchau, the 
opportunity has been embraced to distribute large numbers 
of volumes and tracts among the competitors — e, </., in 1859, 
about nine thousand graduates of the first degree, from all parts 
of the province, including the island of Formosa, assembled 
at this place to compete for the second degree. The English 
and some of the American missionaries availed themselves of 
the occasion to distribute to the competitors about seven thou- 
sand tracts and volumes, besides two thousand copies of por- 
tions of the Bible. The plan was to stand near the outside 
door, and give to the candidates as they came out of the places 
where the examinations had been held. Most of the volumes 
were distributed at the residence of the literary chancellor at 
the close of the supplementary examinations of some of the 
candidates preparatory to competition for the second degree. 
The rest were given away to them as they came out of the 
Provincial Examination Ilall at the termination of their last 
general examination before the imperial commissioners. Only 
a few out of this immense crowd refused to accept the books ; 
the vast majority seemed glad to obtain them. 

In 1850, two missionaries, sent by the Swedish Missionary 
Society, arrived at this place, intending to establish a Mission ; 




ICOHAMHBDAKS AND ROMAN CATHOLICS. 87 

but the untimely death of one, the result of an attack by pi- 
rates on the Min, near Kinpai Pass, in the fall of the same year, 
frustrated the enterprise. In 1852 his associate left China for 
his native land. 

There is a small community of native Mohammedans at Fuh- 
chau. In the western and northwestern parts of the empire 
they are very numerous and powerful. The resident priest, 
who lives on the premises on which the mosque is built, is re- 
ported to come from the western portion of China. These 
premises are on the west side of the main street in the city, 
running north and south, not far from the South Gate. On 
tablets put over the principal door and posts of the mosque are 
gilt inscriptions in Arabic. The Calendar, or list of days when 
fasts are observed or worship is performed, usually contain 
a few sentences in Chinese, which speak of several worthies 
mentioned in the Old Testament. Very little is known by the 
common people about the Mohammedans and their worship 
or creed. The Mohammedans are exceedingly uncommunica- 
tive on subjects relating to themselves. 

Near the South Gate, outside the city, is a Roman Catholic 
church, built, according to report, since the treaties opening 
this port to foreign residence and tolerating Romanism in 
China were formed. The number of native converts to Ro- 
manism living in the city and suburbs is not known, but it has 
been vaguely estimated at several thousand. Some of the 
boat population are Roman Catholics. Masses are said regu- 
larly every morning and evening during the week ; occasion- 
ally other religious services are held on week days. Worship 
is also conducted statedly on the Sabbath. The Sabbath is 
not observed as a day of rest from labor, and there is nothing 
in the general conduct of the Chinese Catholics which distin- 
guishes them from the pagans among whom they live. They 
do not worship the ancestral tablets in their houses. 

Usually one or more European priests reside on the prem- 
ises connected with the church. They dress in Chinese cos- 
tume, shaving the head and braiding the cue. The priests 
and the Chinese Catholics shun the acquaintance of Protestant 
missionaries and converts connected with Protestant Missions, 
and are very wary and silent in regard to matters which con- 
cern the Roman Catholic Mission. A boarding-school for boys 




38 INTRODUCTION. 

is sustained on the Mission premises. Some or all of the pu- 
pils are trained thoroughly in the doctrines and practices of 
the Roman Church preparatory to entering on the functions 
of the Romish priesthood. Near the church is a new and con- 
venient building, erected expressly, a few years ago, for the 
purpose of saving alive and bringing up the little girls found 
deserted by their parents, or who should be brought there by 
them. There is a very appropriate inscription, in large Chi- 
nese characters, over the front door of this asylum, saying, 
" When thy father and thy mother forsake thee^ the Lord wiU 
take thee upP This institution is under the oversight of sev- 
eral nuns, or Sisters of Mercy, from Manilla. It is reported as 
being in a flourishing state. 

The church is well built. It has an inscription in large gilt 
characters upon its front, implying that it is erected in accord- 
ance with the especial permission of the emperor. Upon its 
roof is a large cross, which may be seen from a considerable 
distance. No seats are provided in the church for the wor- 
shipers, but mats on which they kneel. The men use one side 
of the church and women the other. Near the pulpit or altar 
Is an image or picture of Mary, and an image of the Savior on 
the Cross, and on the walls are numerous pictures of Romish 
saints. A tablet to the emperor, having upon it the usual in- 
scription which is applied only to him, several years ago was 
to be seen near the altar, in such a position that when the wor- 
shipers bowed toward the altar, and the images and pictures 
near it, they necessarily also bowed toward the tablet. 

The Roman Catholic priests here operate secretly. Per- 
haps they labor principally among the descendants of Roman 
Catholics of former generations. During about two hundred 
years there have been native Romanists at this place. Some- 
times they have been severely persecuted by the government, 
and some have remained faithful to their professions through 
all their trials, and have brought up their children in the 
Romish faith. 

The doors of the church are not open to all Chinese who 
desire to attend the worship, as all the Protestant missionaries 
open the doors of their chapels and churches to the public. 
Only members of the Romish community, or those who are 
properly introduced, are permitted to enter the church and re- 




KOMAMSM DIFFERENT FROM PROTEST.VNTISM. 39 

main till rill <; »4i-rvice. The luruigii jirifsts or llirir native :is- 
^i•l:lnl•• liuM iiu ]*nlilic preacliint^ service where their duelrincs 
STv o\|ilaineJ and enforceil. Here, .is elsewhere, Komaiiisiii is 
t.%x*«ive, and f«creeus itself from observation, workini^ in the 
dark and secretly. Protestantism boKlly and openly solicits 
examination. Uuniish missionaries to the Chinese slnit the 
•liNir a^inst all except the initiated and tlie welUlispnsed. 
I*r«.te*iant missionaries tlirow open the churches and cha|H^'ls 
li' all. whether friendly, inimical, or iudilferent, whether stran- 
^•.-p« or a<'( plain tances. 

Thf Itonianists do not distribute the IJible, or even relii^ious 
trait.s to the pu!>lic nowadays. It is doui)tfuI whether they 
have made into Chinese a complete translation of the IJible 
for the study of the native priej*ts or for their own use. They 
have a lame variety of tracts and books, wliich may be obtain- 
c-tl by propt-r per>ons by a])p]yini^ at the jn-oper ipiarters. 
S-me of them were prepared over two hundred year< airt» by 
c«)nvert5 in hi;;h stations at court. The Catechisms antl books 
UMr»\ in scliools by their catechumens and converts are intense- 
ly I'harai 'tori Stic — t. //., in a certain Catechism, the second 
ri>nimandment is e\j»un|jed from the l)rcalo'_:iu\ in accordance 
milL the pnicticc in Western lands and, to make uji the re«pii- 
*itc num!>er, the tenth is «1ivii1ed into two. 

Only one public distribution of Koman Catliolic Itonks is 
kn«*wn as havin*^ occurred at this place between !>•.*'«» anil 
l-'i^i. Amon^ the books wliich were i^iven away on that oc- 
r:L«iii«n w.^s one wliich hac] a sinirular stamp tir imprint of >ix 
( hiiif*e characters in reil ink. Thr-f charai'trrs, taken in ci»n- 
nci-tion HJth (»thcr characters in n d ink aKo >tainpi'>l ii)Min 
!*.-j l.NMik, informed tlie rcidn* that //n r* //;//../! »>/(/'* /."/••'•;/'' 
I[w,ir»tt \riiH tliff* r» nt fn»iii th* /■»//•//""// fj tfi* h'in'j*hnn fffh* 
yh,\rfnj yii'j. It i»i necosary to i-\piain that tlie di-^tiii* ri\i' 
nnnii- in China tVir tin* ISoman Catlmlic n liLri^n is tlir **/*'//7' " 
*•/ tfi0 Lunl nf H*ttveny* ^Vnil*. jjif. miiiiMon naiiic f-T the 
Kt iti-il Stales of America i** the '•/.//«./. A .i/i ../V/n /'/"r^iy 
t'f'iiu^ a term derived doubtle>s tVniu il.r uni<|iii' apprarance 
ot'ihi- Mars .ind stripe** of the nalii-nal tlii;^. Tin- iiiinisin-^ in- 
Ci-ndeii m Jh» convi'Ved by the imprint «* ua«* tliat II"iM:nii*ni 
«^ dif|[iTt*nt from I*rotcstaMti>n). It woiijil mihi x\..\\ ihc 
Komantnb« h.td been aroused, bv the /^-al of IVoii slant \\\\>- 




40 INTRODUCTION. 

sionaries in distributing books, to an unwonted exhibition of 
zeal in the distribution of Roman Catholic books. But, in or- 
der to protest against Protestantism, and not knowing any bet- 
ter name to give it than the name denoting the nationality of 
the greatest number of Protestant missionaries at Fuhchau, 
they caused some or all of the books given away on the occar 
sion referred to, to be stamped in a prominent place and in a 
color which would attract attention, with a sentence meaning 
that the religion of Heaven^ a Lord was not the same as the 
American religion I 

There are many points of similarity between Roman Cathol- 
icism and Chinese Buddhism. The common people here do 
not discover many points of dissimilarity between the lives of 
the converts to Romanism and the native adherents of Bud- 
dhism. The prominent points of similarity are the vow of cel- 
ibacy, monastic seclusion, monastic habit, holy water, count- 
ing beads, fasting, forbidden meats, masses for the dead, wor- 
ship of relics, canonization of saints, use of incense and candles, 
bell and book, purgatory — from which prayers and ceremonies 
deliver — use of a dead language, and pretension to miracles. 

Hue, the I^^zarist, seems pleased with this striking similar- 
ity, and says. Buddhism has an admixture of truth with holy 
Church. 

Premare, another distinguished Romanist, says, the devil has 
imitated Mother Church to scandalize her, 

Protestants ask. Has not Romanism borrowed from pagan- 
ism? 




CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEOPLE. 41 



CHAPTER I. 

AOBICULTUBAL AND DOliSSTIC HATTERS. 

Characteristics of the People. — Houses. — No Glass Windows. — Cold and 
Heat. — Soil fertile. — Principal Crops. — Sorghum not Chinese Sugar-cane. 
— ^Fruits and Vegetables. — Principal Articles of Food. — Chinese at their 
Meals. — No promiscuous Mingling of the Sexes on festive Occasions. — 
Tea the common Beverage. — How prepared. — ^Trip to a Tea Plantation. 
— ^Description of Tea Shrub. — Transplanted. — Congo and Oolong made 
from the same Shrub. — Plucking the Leaves. — Manner of preparing Con- 
go and Oolong. — Practical Inference. — Fields how cultivated. — Threshing 
Grain. — Manner of Hulling Rice. — ^Flouring Mills. — No Fences. — Man- 
ner of Irrigation. — Artificial Ponds for raising Fish. — Hatching Duck 
Eggs by artificial Heat. — Fishing with Cormorants. — Fuel and Timber. — 
Vegetable Oils and Tallow. — ^Temples and Places worth Visiting. — Char- 
coal Birds. — Native Poor-house. — Few labor-saving Machines used. — 
Manual Labor. — Wages of common Laborers. — Employment of Women. 
— Block Stereotyping and Printing. — A few Words about the Chinese 
Language. 

The Chinese at Fuhchau are shorter than the generality of 
foreigners, mild in character, and timid in appearance. They 
are not as turbulent, bloodthirsty, and daring as are the Chi- 
nese of some of the more southern sections of the empire. 
They indulge oftentimes in angry scolding and violent quarrel- 
ing in the streets, but seldom come to earnest blows. They are 
proud and self-relying, and look with disdain, as do other Chi- 
nese, on foreigners. They are in the habit of applying dimin- 
ntive and derogatory expressions to them : none so bad, how- 
ever, as "fanqui" — "foreign devil" — formerly used so con- 
stantly at Canton. The most common epithet applied at Fuh- 
chau to foreigners is "Huang kiang" — "foreign children.? 
This they oftentimes ring out in most derisive and insulting 
tones. They, almost without exception, have black hair and 
eyes; and, noticing the fact that most foreigners have hair 
and eyes not of the same color, frequently express this differ- 
ence by calling them red-haired and blue-eyed, though their 
hair may be white and eyes gray. Foreigners all belong to 




42 AGBICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERa 

tke kiDgdom of red-haired people, while the Chinese style 
themselves men of the " black-haired race." 

The houses of the Chinese are usually one story high, and 
built of wood. Few substantial brick dwelling-houses are 
seen. The covering is earthen tiles burned in kilns — not shin- 
gles, or lead, or zinc. The flooring of most houses among the 
poorer classes is made of a cement composed of clay, sand, and 
lime, and is hard and smooth when properly prepared, or it is 
simply the earth pounded down. The wooden floors, even in 
the better kind of houses, are very poor, uneven, and unplaned. 
No carpets are used, and seldom is matting spread upon the 
flooring. Oftentimes there is no ceiling over h^ad, the room 
extending to the roof. A large number of families live in 
boats about twenty or twenty-five feet long, and about six or 
eight feet wide. Here children are born, brought up, marry, 
and die. 

Dwelling-houses usually have wooden windows, no glass be- 
ing used even in wealthy families. Sometimes windows hav- 
ing a kind of semi-transparent shell ingeniously arranged in 
rows are found. When light is needed, the wooden windows 
are opened either partially or wholly. They are also opened 
for purposes of ventilation in the summer season. 

The houses have no apparatus for heating them in the win- 
ter, like the fireplaces, furnaces, and stoves of Western lands. 
The doors and windows are poorly adapted to cold weather, 
not being fitted tightly. The Chinese at Fuhchau simply put 
on more garments than usual in the winter, the number being 
graduated by the intensity of the cold. In the absence of ar- 
tificial means for heating their rooms, the people frequeptly 
carry around with them a portable furnace, containing embers 
or coals, with which they warm themselves from time to time. 

At Fuhchau ice is very rarely seen, even as thin as a knife- 
blade. Frosty mornings seldom occur. Snow-storms are ex- 
ceedingly uncommon. In February, 1864, snow fell two or 
three inches deep, and remained on the surrounding hills for 
several days, an event which had not taken place before, it 
was said, for thirty-eight years. Hail-storms are not so un- 
common nS snow-storm3. The heat, in the shade, in the hot- 
test months of summer, seldoni exceeds 96° Fahrenheit. Au- 
gust and September are oflentimes felt to be the most oppress- 




PRINCIPAL OBOPS. 43 

hre mooths, on account of the long-continued heat previously 
experienced. Rain falls in all seasons of the year, though 
more falls in the spring than fall. Usually in April or May 
there is a freshet, covering the rice-fields in the vicinity, and 
flooding the ground on which many houses are built. Very 
few years pass when there is not such a freshet. When it 
comes late in the season it is apt to damage or destroy the 
lioe crop, causing much suffering among the poor. 

The soil of the valley of the Min is very fertile, and is kept 
in a state of excellent tillage. Night-soil is hoarded in the 
city and suburbs by the Chinese with the greatest care. It 
18 sold to persons who transport it into the surrounding coun- 
try for use as manure. On some low lands two crops of rice 
and one of wheat are annually produced. From other fields 
only one crop of rice and one crop of wheat are raised. From 
many gardens at least six or eight crops of vegetables are 
grown year after year. Two crops of the Irish or foreign po- 
tato, on the same land, can be cultivated, one coming to ma- 
turity in December, and the other in April. 

Rice, pf which there are several varieties, wheat, and sweet 
potatoes, are the most common crops. Barley, tobacco, and 
beans are produced in considerable quantities. A kind of 
sugar-cane, propagated by slips, and making inferior brown 
sugar, is also grown extensively. The best sugar used at 
Fuhchan among the Chinese is brought from a more southern 
section of the province, made from another species of cane. 
What is called in the United States the Chinese sugar-cane, 
or sorghum, is not produced extensively in Southern China, 
nor ia it, properly speaking, Chinese sugar-cane ; for Chinese 
sugar-cane is the same as American sugar-cane, and is propa- 
gated by slips or cuttings, not by seeds.* 

• The so-called Chinese sngar-canc, or sorghum, is grown very extensive- 
ly in Northern China, and is known among foreigners as a kind of millet — 
the Iktrbadoes MUiet. The Chinese name for it is Kauliang. It is propa- 
gated like broom-corn, which it resembles in some res})ect8 — by its seeds, 
which grow on the top of its stalks. The Chinese do not express the juice 
from its stalks for the purpose of manufacturing molasses or sugar, and they 
manifest surprise when informed that such a use Ls made of it in the United 
Hcates. They make a coarse kind of bread fr»m the flour of the seeds of 
the Kaoliang, eaten principally by the poorer classes. The best kind of 
Ckifiete whisky, oftentimes called Chinese wine, is distilled from the seeds. 




44 AGRIOULTUBAL AND DOMESTIC MATTEEa 

Fruits are plenty daring all the year, bat they are picked 
before ripe, very frequently when quite green, so that, as a gen- 
eral remark, they are not well flavored. At the close of the 
season for each species, ripe fruits are found in market. They 
are oflen brought on men's shoulders a great distance in bas- 
kets, and if picked only when ripe, they would spoil or be very 
badly damaged before they could reach the market. There 
are no railroads by which ripe fruit and other produce can be 
transported without injury and with speed; nor are steamers 
available for transporting fruit, etc., except between a very 
few places along the sea-coast. Junks and sailing vessels are 
usually too slow and uncertain a mode of conveyance for fruit, 
unless picked before fully ripe. Peaches, plums, pears, and 
several varieties of the orange, abound in their season. One 
kind of orange, which is called the Mandarin orange, has a 
loose jacket or skin, and the inside is divided into ten or twelve 
lobes. There are no lemons, cherries, or currants rabed at 
Fubchau, and no berries of any kind, as strawberry, goose- 
berry, whortleberry, blackberry, raspberry, etc. The pine-ap- 
ple, plantain, cocoa-nut, mango, and a fine variety of pumelo, 
are brought from Formosa or Amoy in native junks or by 
steamers. Native puraclos, shaddocks, pomegranates, the ar- 
butus, the guava, persimmon, grapes of an inferior quality, the 
pipa, lichi, the lungan, or the dragon's eyes, are abundant, but 
no good apples. Large quantities of oranges, ginger, and va- 
rious kinds of fruits and vegetables, are preserved in sugar, 
and exported to other parts of China. Bamboo shoots for 
food are also cured and sent away. Water-melons, squash- 
es, onions and garlics, turnips, carrots, cabbages, lettuce, cu- 
cumbers, and a variety of vegetables peculiar to China, or at 
least not cultivated in the United States or in Great Britain, 
are produced in large quantities, and sold at reasonable prices ; 
but no musk-melon, nor beets, nor tomatoes of a large species. 
A very small kind of tomato, about the size of a small cherry. 

The stalks arc used for fael, for lathing in the partitions of houses, for slight 
and temporarj fences, etc. Numerous and immense fuel-yards, consisting 
entirely of the dried stalks of the Kanliang, are formed at Tientsin and many 
other cities in the north of China. During a few years past many inquiries 
hare been made in regard to the manner in which the Chinese manufacture 
sugar and molasses out of the sorghum, but such information is vainly sought 
of them, for they nerer manufacture such articles from its stalks. 




PRINCIPAL KINDS OF FOOD. 45 

called ^* BDake^s eggs,'* not used as food by the Chinese, is 
found growing wild. Ground-nuts or pea-nuts are extensively 
cultivated. The art of grafting is considerably practiced, but 
fimit is not cultivated as carefully as at the West. 

The Chinese at Fuhchau live principally on rice, fish, and 
vegetables. They never use bread at their meals, as people 
do in Western lands. Wheat flour is used for making various 
kinds of luncheon and cakes. The most common meats are 
pork, the flesh of the mountain goat, and the flesh of the do- 
mesticated bufialo or water-ox, and the cow, ducks, geese, 
diickens, and fish from salt and from fresh water. There 
18 never any veal or mutton in market. They never salt 
down beef or pork. Fuhchau bacon and hams are celebrated 
in Eastern and Southern Asia. It is considered a hardship 
and a mark of excessive poverty to eat potatoes except as 
luncheon. Immense quantities of the sweet potato are grated 
into coarse slips and dried in the sun, for use as food among 
the poor in case rice can not be procured. This dried potato 
is called potato-rice. Oysters abound in the winter, and are 
very cheap, the usual price of clear oysters being between five 
and six c^nts per pound. Shrimps, crabs, and clams are plen- 
tiful. Little wild game can be obtained at any season of the 
year. In the winter, pheasants, in small numbers, are brought 
from the country to sell, having been shot or entrapped upon 
the hiUs. 

The Chinese at their meals usually have several sm^l dishes 
of vegetables, fish, etc., prepared, besides a large quantity of 
boiled or steamed rice put in a vessel by itself. Each person 
helps himself to the rice, putting some, by means of a ladle or 
large spoon, into a bowl. The bowl, held in the lefl hand, is 
brought near the chin, whence, by the use of a pair of chop- 
sticks, taken between the thumb and fore and middle fingere, 
the rice is shoveled or pushed into the mouth from time to time. 
Whenever any vegetable or fish, etc., is desired, a morsel is 
taken, by a dexterous use of the chopsticks, from the common 
dish which contains the article and conveyed to the mouth. 
The chopsticks are not used separately, one in each hand, as 
many suppose. An earthen spoon is sometimes used to dip 
out the gravy or liquor from the dish of vegetables or fish, but 
knives and forks are never used at meal-time. 




46 AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 

Husband, and wife, and adult children oftentimes eat at the 
same table and at the same time, if there are no strangers or 
guests present; in such a case, females do not appear at the 
table with the males. On festive occasions, when friends are 
invited to dinner, the men eat by themselves, and the women 
by themselves. Ladies and gentlemen, if unacquainted, are 
not formally introduced to each other when invited to a feast 
at the same house, nor do they converse or promenade to- 
gether, as in Western lands. The ladies keep by themselves 
in the inner apartments, while the gentlemen remain in the re- 
ception-room, or public hall, or library. Persons of different 
sex, even those who are acquainted or related, are not allowed 
to mingle together on public or festive occasions. Husband 
and wife never walk side by side or arm in arm in the streets. 
Sometimes a small-footed woman is seen walking in public 
leaning on the shoulder of her son. Dancing is unknown. 

The common beverage of the Chinese is a weak decoction 
of black tea. According to common fame, they never nse 
green tea. At Fuhchau, the use of cold water as a drink is re- 
garded by the natives as decidedly unhealthy, and most would 
prefer to thirst for a long time rather than drink it, though 
they might venture to rinse their mouth or wet their lips with 
water. A drink of hot or warm water would be greatly pre- 
ferred to a drink of cold water. The poorest of the poor must 
have their tea, regarding it not so much a luxury as a neces- 
sary. They never use milk or sugar, but always take it clear, 
and, if convenient, as hot as they can drink it. They prepare 
it, not by steeping, but by pouring boiling water, or water 
which has boiled, upon the tea, letting it stand a few mii^ates, 
usually covered over. It is considered essential, on receiving 
a call from a friend or stranger, to offer him some hot tea as 
soon after he enters as possible, and usually he is also invited 
to smoke a whiff of tobacco. Unless the tea should be forth- 
coming, the host would be regarded as destitute of good man- 
ners, and unaccustomed to the usages of polite society. 

In May, 1861, in company with an American friend, a visit 
was made to some tea plantations situated twelve or fifteen 
miles to the north of Fuhchau, on the Piling Hills. The 
plautatiops were comp a ratively of rec ent jjrowtb^ commenced 
mostly since this port became a^arket for black teas fpr ex- 




CULTIVATION OF THE TEA-PLANT. 47 

pnr ^t.iftTTi 1^ f/xf^ig^ /»/M^^»f»;^Q iXTie tea produced is compara- 
tively of little importance as far as amount is concerned, though \ 
th e prospect is fair that the production will b e largely increased 
asYast as time and the slenaer capital of the people wiU admit. I 
There is a large tract of th^ h^Uv country now uncultivat ed J 

weU adagted^^wejwere^infor^^^ 
sh rub. 

-''Theltea-shrub resembles, in some respects, the low species 
of whortleberry, being allowed to grow usually only about a 
foot and a half high. Some compare the tea-shrub to the cur- 
rant-bush ; but the currant grows too high and is too bushy to 
justify the comparison, according to our observation. The 
tea-shrub would grow much higher than what we saw, if al- 
lowed to do so. It was kept low by picking the higher leaves 
and breaking off the highest branches. A high shrub would 
be in danger of damage from the heavy storms of wind, which 
are quite common amid the hills, and, besides, the leaves would 
not be as valuable as the leaves of a small shrub. 

The tea-seeds should be planted in the tenth Chinese month 
(corresponding to November), and the plants are then ready 
for transplanting by the following autumn. They are trans- 
planted from three to five together, in rows from three to five 
feet apart each away, in much the same manner as Indian corn 
is planted in America. In about four years the plants are 
hurge enough to spare some of their leaves without serious 
detriment. The plantations are not manured, but are kept 
free from weeds. The plant blossoms about the tenth month, 
producing a white flower, in appearance and size much like the 
flower of the orange. The seeds form in a pod, each pod con- 
taining three tea-seeds about as large as a small bean. 

We were informed that only two kinds of tea, Congo and 
Oolong, were usually made from these tea plantations, differ- 
ing from each other only in consequence of being manufac- 
tured in different ways. We queried closely and repeatedly 
our informants, the men engaged in picking and preparing the 
leaves, in regard to the processes of preparing these varieties. 
We could not perceive that they were deceiving us, nor could 
we see any reason or cause why they should attempt to de- 
ceive. Of course, we could not in one day, and that a cloudy 
and misty day, see all the processes described ourselves, and 




48 GRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 

gather from our personal observation all the facts mention- 
ed. 

The leaves of a medium size are carefully plucked, principal- 
ly by women and children. The largest leaves are usually left 
on the shrub, in order to catch the dew. If all were picked at 
once, there would be danger of killing or of greatly injuring 
the shrub. A thrifty clump will annually furnish from three 
to five ounces of leaves, and a smart picker can gather in a day 
eight or ten pounds of green leaves. There are three seasons 
for picking the leaves, viz., in the third, fiflh, and eighth Chi- 
nese months, when each shrub is picked over, at intervals of 
ten or fifteen days, two or three times or more, according to 
its thriftiness, and the demand in market for the dried leaf. 
If there is no prospect of selling the tea at a profit, the leaf is 
not picked. A pound of green leaves makes only about three 
or four ounces of tea. The first picking is the best, and com- 
mands the highest price. 

The following, we were informed, is the method of prepar- 
ing Congo : 

1. The leaves are exposed in the sun or in an airy place. 
The object of this is not to dry them, but only to toiU them 
slowly and thoroughly. 

2. A quantity of the leaves thus wilted are put into a shal- 
low vessel, usually made of the splints of the bamboo, and 
trodden down together for a considerable time, until all the 
fibres and stems of the leaves are broken. The object is sim- 
ply to break the stiff parts or fibres. Men, barefooted, are em- 
ployed to do this work, because the Chinese do not appear to 
have found out a more convenient, expeditious, and effective 
method of attaining the object in view. It does not seem to 
them a filthy and objectionable operation. 

3. These leaves are then rolled in a particular manner by 
the hands of the operator. The object is solely to cause them 
to take a round or spiral form. If not rolled in this way they 
would remain flat, a shape not adapted to the foreign market. 
While lying on the vessel, the hands, spread out, are passecl 
around for some time in a circular manner, parallel to the bot- 
tom of the vessel, lightly touching the leaves. 

4. They are now placed in a heap to heat for half an hour 
or longer, until they become of a reddish appearance. 




PREPARATION OF CONGO AND OOLONG. 49 

5. The leaves are then spread out in the sun, or in a light 
and airy place, and left to dry. They must be thoroughly 
dried, else they would mould, and become unfit for the foreign 
market. 

6. The leaf is next sold to the agents of foreigners or to na- 
tive dealers, who take it away and expend a great deal of la- 
bor upon it before it is shipped to foreign countries. It is 
sifled on coarse sieves, and picked over several times, in order 
to separate the different qualities, to remove the stems, the 
large or flat leaves, etc. The large leaves are put by them- 
selves, and the small by themselves. It is dried several times 
over slow fires in iron pans, in order to prevent its spoiling 
throagh moisture, according to circumstances, as the weather, 
length of time on hand, etc., seem to require. 

The process of preparing Oolong tea differs in some partic- 
ulars from the method of preparing Congo. 

The fresh leaves are dried for a short time only, not until 
they are wilted, but only until all the dew, or water, or exter- 
nal dampness is gone. 

Instead of being dried in the sun, they are dried in an iron 
vessel over a small, steady fire. They are kept in motion by 
the hand to prevent any scorching, or crisping, or burning. 
They are not perfectly, but only about half dried. 

liiey are trodden by barefooted men, rolled with the hand, 
and dried in the sun or air, and aflerward sifted, sorted, and 
fired in iron pans, as the leaf for making Oolong was served. 

In the suburbs of Fuhchau there are many establishments 
where large numbers of young men, women, and children arc 
industriously employed during the tea season in sifting and 
sorting the leaves. Women and children earn from three to 
six cents per day, according to their skill and celerity, they 
boarding themselves ; while the young men receive from five 
to eight cents, besides their board, per day. 

These facts, and others whicli might be added, show that 
tea can never be cultivated in Western countries to advant- 
age. The high rate of wages in the United States, even if it 
would grow in the southern part of the country, would forbid 
the extensive and profitable cultivation of the tea-shrub. The 
same amount of capital, industry, and labor, employed in any 
of the common trades and occupations in that land, would be 

VoL.1.— C 




60 



AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 



far more lucrative. Tea could not be afforded, if raised in 
America, at less than four or five times the cost per pound at 
which it can be afforded obtained from China. 

The fields are cultivated by means of the plow and the har- 
row, drawn by the water-ox or domesticated buffalo, and by 




PLOWIMO WITH Tin XWMZSTIOATED BCTfTALO. 

the hoo and light pick-axe. The use of the spade and the 
wheelbarrow is unknown. Women of the large or natural- 
footed class and men work at farming together. Such women 
also carry burdens in the same manner as men. Only one 
beast, guided by a rope tied to a ring in its nose, is used in 
plowing. The common plow is simple and light, turning a 
narrow and shallow furrow. Rice, wheat, etc., are always 
reaped by the sickle or bill-hook. There are no cradles or 
machines for cutting grain, nor are there any machines used 
for threshing grain, as in the United States and England. 

When it is necessary to transport the bundles from one part 
of the field to another for any purpose, they are carried in the 
usual manner of carrying other articles, by a pole laid across 
the shoulder, never on carts or wagons. Rico and wheat are 
usually threshed by beating on a frame of slats ; sometimes 
by flails on the hard ground. A man takes a small quanti- 




CARRYmO AND THB£SHINO GRAIIT. 



51 




OASBTiMO liUMDLEfi OF OB▲l^. 



ty of the unthreshed 
grain in both hands, 
and strikes it forcibly 
upon the slats until 
the grain is beaten 
out, when the straw 
is thrown aside, and 
another quantity is 
taken and beaten in 
the same way. The 
grain is winnowed by 
throwing it up into 
the wind, or by a 
rudely - constructed 
fanning -mill, worked 
by a crank, in general 
appearance very much 
like Western fanning- 
roills, minus sieves. 
The modern fanning- 




TUBKSHIMO ORaUC 




62 



AQRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC KATTEBS. 



mills used in the United States, undoabtedly, are only im- 
proved Chinese fanning-mills. 

The hull is removed from rice by a kind of mill, turned by 
hand, consisting of two parts. The upper part, which is not 
very heavy, is made to move slowly around upon the lower by 
a man pushing and pulling upon the handle. One end of the 
handle is suspended by a cord attached to something in the 
top of the room. By simply pushing and pulling this handle 
in a certain way the upper part revolves. The rice, unhulled, 




UULUMO BIOS. 



is put upon the upper part, and passes through a hole down 
to the surfaces, which touch and rub against each other. The 
rice comes out from the side and falls into a basket. What 
is not perfectly hulled by this process is then pounded in a 
large stone mortar. This operation always removes the last 
of the hulls from the rice. 

The mills for grinding wheat are very rude and poor. Some 
of them are turned by water, especially in hilly sections of the 
country, where there are small rapid streams. In cities and 




MANN£B OF IRRIGATING RICE-FIELDS. 63 

villages the motive power usoally is a blindfolded buffalo, 
which is fastened to a pole connecting with the upper mill- 
stone. The animal, by walking around in a circle, the centre 
of which is the mill, causes the upper stone to revolve. The 
grain requires to be passed through the mill several times be- 
fore the flour is fine enough for baking purposes. It is then 
sifted by hand, and is ready for use. Oftentimes the flour is 
very gritty, owing to a poor quality of stones, or to the bad 
manner in which they are repaired or fitted to each other. 

There are no fences, or walls, or hedges dividing the fields. 
Boundaries between rice-fields are usually marked by a small 
rabed pathway. Cattle, when let out to graze on the hills, 
are always kept from wandering far, and from destroying the 
crops in the vicinity, by boys or girls watching and tending 
them. There are no meadows where gi*ass is cut for making 
hay, and of course the scythe is unknown. The grass is wild. 
There is no clover, timothy grass, or red-top, or any of the va- 
rious species of herds' grass cultivated, as in Western coun- 
tries. Cattle, in the winter, are kept principally on wheat and 
rice straw. Horses are not kept by farmers for use in the 
fields, or for riding or driving, the domesticated buflalo and a 
smaller kind of cattle being used exclusively for tilling the 
ground. Only oflicials of government employ horses. 

Irrigation is generally, in this vicinity, performed by means 
of an endless chain-pump. One end of the box in which the 
chain, or rather rope, and its buckets pass, is placed at an an- 
gle of forty-five degrees, more or less, with the river, canal, or 
pond whence water is to be brought upon the neighboring 
fields. This box is open on the top and both ends, and made 
very strong and light, one man carrying the whole apparatus 
with ease on his shoulders. The chain, with its buckets, passes 
over a horizontal shaft, which is supported by two perpendic- 
ular posts. One or more persons, steadying themselves by 
leaning, upon a horizontal polo four or five feet higher than the 
shaft, and by walking or stepping briskly on short, radiating 
arms, cause it to revolve on its axis, bringing up the water, 
which pours out of the upper end of the box. The faster the 
men walk or step, the greater the quantity of water pumped 
up. The water, in little streams, is made to run wherever de- 
sired. The low rice-fields are usually kept flooded with wa- 




54 



AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 




nUQATIO!! BT MXAlfS Or AN SlfDLESS OHAXN-PUMP. 

ter one or two months before and after the rice-plants are 
transplanted. The endless chain-pumps are very numerous in 
this section, and are of essential service in irrigating the land. 
Between the Min and the city, on each side of the main 
street, are numerous artificial ponds, used as reservoirs of wa- 
ter for irrigating purposes and for raising fresh fish. They 
are not large, seldom occupying more than two or three acres 
of ground each. The eggs or spawn are obtained from Ki- 
angsi, the province joining Fuhkien on the west. The fish, 
when young, are fed on a very singular vegetable which grows 
on the surface of the water, and multiplies during the night- 
time with almost incredible rapidity. The large fish consume 
in immense quantities a certain long, coarse grass, which grows 
wild in wet places or by the margin of the ponds. This is 
thrown into the ponds, where the fish eat it at their pleasure. 
The water is drawn or pumped off generally once a year, and 
the fish, when the water becomes low, are caught by nets. At 
the last, when nets can not be used, men, women, and children 




HATCHING DUCK EGGS BY ARTIFICIAL HEAT. 65 

wade iu the mud and mire, and pick oat the balance of the 
fish, large and small. These fish-ponds are usually very profit- 
able. In some years the annual freshet is so high as to over- 
flow the ponds, when the fish escape, unless they are kept in 
by a kind of wicker-work made of bamboo spjints, or by nets 
surrounding the ponds. Many fish at such times escape, not- 
withstanding all the precautions which can be used. Often- 
times large quantities of the rich mud found in the ponds 
when the water is drawn off are taken and spread on the 
neighboring fields as manure. The removal of the mud serves 
to make the ponds capable of holding more water and raising 
more fish. 

In the suburbs on the south bank of the Min, duck eggs 
are hatched by artificial heat, early in the spring, in immense 
quantities. Ducklings only a few days old are hawked about 
the streets for sale. Large numbers are taken to the country, 
where they are tended in droves by boys and girls. Often- 
times a boat, with several hundred half-grown ducks, is pro- 
pelled from spot to spot along the banks of the river, or the 
canals which intersect the valley in all directions. When the 
person in charge wishes to feed his ducks, he lets thom out of 
the boat by means of a plank extending from its edge to the 
shore. The ducks are trained to walk tlie plank to and from 
the shore at the will of their keeper. The ducks thrive upon 
the small, living, nameless creatures which abound on the shores 
of creeks and canals, and which burrow in the mud, coming 
out at low water in immense numbers. 

At full tide, the bridges across the Min at Fuhchau fliay 
often be seen crowded with men viewing the feats of the tame 
fishing cormorants. These birds look at a distance about the 
size of the goose, and are of a dark, dirty color. The fisher- 
man who has charge of them stands upon a rafl about two 
and a half feet wide, and fifteen or twenty feet long, made out 
of five large bamboos of similar size and shape, firmly fastened 
together. It is very light, and is propelled by a paddle. A 
basket is placed on it to contain the fish when caught. Each 
rafl has three or four cormorants connected with it. When 
not fishing, they crouch down stupidly on the rafl. 

The fisherman, when he wishes to make a cormomt fish, 
pushes or throws it off the raft into the water. If it is not 




66 



AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 



disposed at ODce to dive and seek for fish, he beats the water 
with his paddle, or sometimes strikes the bird, so that it is 
glad to dive and get out of his reach. When it has caught a 
fish it rises to the surface, holding it in its mouth, and appar- 




rifUIIMQ WITH 0OXMOBA2CTB. 



ently striving to swallow it. A string tied loosely around its 
neck, or a metallic ring, effectually prevents swallowing, ex- 
cept, perhaps, in the case of very small fish. It usually swims 
directly for the rail ; the fisherman, on seeing the prize, pad- 




FISHING WITH CORMORANTS. 57 

dies toward it with all speed, lest it should escape from the 
bird. Sometimes the fish is a large one, and there is evidently 
a struggle between it and the cormorant. The fisherman, when 
near enough, dexterously passes a net-like bag, fastened to the 
end of a pole, over the two, and draws them both on the raft. 
He then forces the fish from the grasp of the bird, and, as if 
to reward the latter for its success, gives it a mouthful of food, 
which it is enabled to swallow on his raising the ring from 
the lower part of its neck. The bird, if apparently tired out, 
is allowed to rest a while on the raft, and then it is pushed off 
again into the water, and made to dive and hunt for fish as 
before. 

Sometimes the cormorant, from imperfect training, swims 
away from the raft with the fish it has caught. In such a 
case, the fisherman pursues and speedily overtakes the truant. 
Sometimes, it is reported, two or three cormorants assist in 
securing a large and powerful fish. Oftentimes two quarrel 
together for the fish one has taken, or one pursues the other 
for the fish in its mouth. At such times the interest of the 
spectators on the bridge increases to noisy jshouting. The bird 
is provided with a sort of pouch or large throat, in which the 
small fish are entirely concealed, while the head or the tail of 
the larger fish protrudes from its mouth. 

It is only at or near full tide that these birds are successful 
in catching fish under and near the*bridgcs. Then the water 
is deep and comparatively still, and the fish seem to abound in 
the vicinity more than at low tide. At such times there are 
frequently several rafts with cormorants fishing near the 
bridges. The skill of the fisherman in propelling his craft, 
and the success of the bird in catching the fish, are attested 
by the delighted curiosity and animated intwest of the spec- 
tators. 

The fael of the Chinese at Fuhchau is principally a kind of 
Btunted fir or pine. It is brought down the Min in boats. 
Rawed into sticks about twenty inches long, and done up in 
Bmall bundles. Charcoal made out of hard wood is also 
brought down the river in large quantities. An inferior kind 
of stone coal is also procured here. The timber used in build- 
ing houses and junks, a light and soft wood, somewhat resem- 
bles fir or pine. Several kinds of hard wood are used in cab- 

C2 




58 AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 

inet work. Among them is the camphor, but no maple, wal- 
nnt, beech, or oak. 

There are several kinds of vegetable oils in common use, 
but no mineral oil or gas. A good quality for burning is made 
out of pea-nuts. Another kind, simply called " vegetable oil," 
is manufactured from the seeds of a vegetable having yellow 
flowers, much resembling, when in blossom and at a short dis- 
tance, the common mustard. Another oil, by foreigners com- 
monly, but incorrectly, called tea-oil, the best kind for burning 
in lamps, is made from the seeds or kernels which grow on a 
species of tree. These three kinds of oil are much used in 
cooking by the people, taking the place of butter or lard. 
Vegetable tallow is made from the seeds or kernels which 
grow in clusters on another kind of tree, called the tallow-tree. 
The seeds are gathered in the fall. This tallow is found in 
market in large cakes weighing fifty or sixty pounds, and looks 
much like animal tallow. The candles used in worshiping the 
spirits of deceased ancestors, and gods and goddesses, are all 
professedly made from this vegetable tallow, or some of the 
vegetable oils, hardened by white wax. This wax is a very 
hard substance, brought from the western or northwestern 
provinces. In cold weather, some of the vegetable tallow and 
some of the vegetable oils are mixed together in order to make 
candles. It is believed that the use of candles manufactured, 
from the fat of the water-dx or buffalo would be offensive to 
the objects worshiped, because the buffalo is regarded as a meri- 
torious animal. It is said, also, that the ^odor arising from the 
burning of candles made of animal fat would bo repugnant to 
the gods. The milk of the buffalo is not used for making but- 
ter or cheese, nor as an article of food. This animal is raised 
solely for its invaluable services in plowing and harrowing the 
land. The butter made from its milk is white, and less pala- 
table and rich than the fresh golden butter of Western coun- 
tries. 

Fuhchau does not contain any great and elaborate works 
of art. It has but few public buildings which foreigners re- 
gard as worth visiting, and these are mostly temples. The 
Prefectnral Temple to Confucius, not far from the south gate, 
in the city ; the Emperor's Temple, near the west gate ; the 
Municipal Temple, not far from the centre of the city, and 




TEMPLES AND LOCALITIES WORTH VISITING. 69 

near the Treasurer's Office ; the Tauist temple to the " Pearly- 
Emperor, Supreme Ruler," on the Hill of the Nine Genii, near 
the White Pagoda ; a new temple built by traders from the 
western part of the province, situated a short distance north 
of Great Temple Hill ; the Temple to the Goddess of Sailors, 
bailt by native merchants from Ningpo, in the suburbs on the 
south bank of the river ; and the celebrated Buddhist Monas- 
tery on Drum Mountain, are among those which repay a visit. 
In some of these are fine specimens of Chinese carving in 
stone, especially in the Temple to the Sailors' Goddess. Cu- 
riosity Street, a little to the west of the viceroy's yamun, is 
often visited by foreigners, where are a large number of shops 
which have for sale costly curiosities. Among those which 
foreigners value most highly are curious and fantastic objects 
cat out of roots of trees, and articles in bronze. A small 
quantity of lacquered-ware, of exquisite workmanship, and 
held at extremely high prices, is made at this place. Of late 
years, various curiosities or objects made out of a kind of soft 
stone, principally of a reddish color, commonly, though im- 
properly, called soap-stone, are manufactured and sold to for- 
eigners. Among these may be mentioned sets of dinner and 
fruit plates, miniature pagodas from one to several feet high, 
miniature honorary portals to the memory of virtuous widows, 
about two feet high, miniature graves of the horse-shoo or 
Omega pattern, and a large variety of vases. Some thirty or 
forty kinds of charcoal birds, of delicate workmanship, shaped 
and painted so as to represent living birds, have a ready sale 
among foreign visitors. Great skill is exhibited in making 
these birds out of charcoal : many of them look as natural as 
life. Outside of one of the gates on the northeast side of the 
city are a number of hot springs. Many Chinese resort thith- 
er to bathe for scrofulous affections. Private bathing-rooms 
near by are to be had for a few cash. In one of the springs, 
which is walled up with stone, are frequently seen a dozen 
men crowded together, the water coming to their arm-pits. 
On Black Rock Hill, in the city, and on Great Temple Hill, in 
the southern suburbs, are altars to Heaven and Earth, where 
high mandarins are required to burn incense in honor of 
Heaven and Earth twice per annum, and where crowds as- 
semble on the ninth day of the ninth month to fly kites. On 




60 AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 

the altar on the Great Temple Hill is a stone, in appearance 
very much like common granite, said to have fallen down from 
the skies. It has several holes drilled on its upper surface, 
which are used to hold incense after it has been lighted in 
honor of Heaven and Earth by the high officials. If it is a 
meteoric stone, which is doubtful, its original shape has been 
changed more or less, for it is now nearly round, and has evi- 
dently been under the tools of the stone-cutter. 

There are no asylums for the lunatic, the deaf and dumb, or 
for the blind, etc., at Fuhchau ; but, according to the wishes 
of the emperor, who is regarded as the father and mother of 
his subjects, the very destitute blind, poor and aged widows, 
and the crippled and the maimed who are without means of 
support, are entitled to a monthly stipend from the provincial 
treasury. Such is said to be the theory. In fact, however, 
of late years, owing to the emptiness of the treasury, and the 
squeezing customs which prevail in connection with the pay- 
ment of money from the treasury, very little money actually 
reaches those whom the emperor would relieve and befriend. 
Much trouble and delay are experienced by those who desire 
to have their names recorded on the list of imperial beneficia- 
ries. The clerks and the underlings of the yamun where 
they should apply have the reputation of treating applicants 
for this benefaction with such insult and cruelty that few 
nowadays apply for the purj)Ose of having their names record- 
ed there. In the summer of 18G1 it was reported that over 
three hundred blind, crippled, and aged persons, in connection 
with a kind of poor-house located in the northern part of the 
city, received every one or two months f\\c hundred cash each 
from government, and a smaller number received a less 
amount. 

Very little machinery is used in the manufacture of articles. 
There are no saw -mills, nor printing-presses, nor factories 
where cloth is made. There are a few founderies where plow- 
shares and the common vessels for cooking are cast^ Almost 
every thing is done by manual labor. Copper or iron wire is 
drawn by hand ; needles are made by hand out of wire ; logs 
are sawn into boards by cross-cut saws propelled back and 
forth in a horizontal direction by men ; the dust out of which 
incense is prepared, used in immense quantities annually, is 




RATE OP WAGES FOR LABOR 61 

filed or rasped off from blocks of fragrant wood by hand. 
Paper, made out of the pulp of tender young bamboos, is 
manufactured by manual labor. Excepting some coarse kinds, 
the fine bamboo paper found in market here is prepared in 
the country, one and two hundred miles to the westward of 
Fuhchau. Iron nails, and brass or copper utensils, axes, chis- 
els, etc, are beaten out by hand. Notwithstanding the un- 
couth and unpolished appearance their tools present when 
compared with tools from Western countries, many of them 
are of excellent quality. 

The wages of the common people are low. Carpenters and 
masons obtain from twenty to thirty cents per day, boarding 
themselves. Hired men and women, who do coarse work in 
the fields or in houses as servants, generally receive from four 
to six dollars per month, and they board themselves. If their 
employers board them they get from one to three dollars per 
month. Clerks and accountants receive from ten to thirty 
dollars per annum, with their board. School-teachers often 
obtain only from thirty to sixty dollars, besides small presents 
from their pupils, per annum. Literary men who are poor, 
and who fail of acquiring government employment, are fre- 
quently glad to teach school at almost a nominal price. Food, 
clothing, and rents are cheap, and yet the poor of all classes 
and occupations are enabled to support themselves only by 
great industry and frugality. 

Women who compress their feet, if poor, engage in various 
indoor employments to provide a living. Many of them are 
employed by needle manufacturers to drill, file, polish, and 
sharpen needles. Others take in needle-work from clothing 
stores. Some are skillful in silk embroidery. A large num- 
ber spend almost all their lives in pasting tin-foil upon bam- 
boo paper for superstitious uses as mock money. The wages 
females receive for work done at their homes varies largely, 
owing to different degrees of skill and speed — from fifty cash 
to one hundred or one hundred and fifly per day, they board- 
ing themselves. 

Handbills, books, etc., are stereotyped on wood, and then 
printed by hand. An exact fac-simile of the slieet or the page 
desired is first made on very thin bamboo paper by the use 
of the hair pencil and black ink. This is then pasted, with the 




62 AGRICULTUBAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 

written side down, on a smooth block of hard wood. The pa- 
per, or most of the paper, is now carefully rubbed ofl^ having 
been moistened, leaving the characters and punctuation in 
black ink traced on the block. This is a process requiring 
considerable skill, lest the characters should be partially or 
wholly erased. The space taken up by the white portions 
of the block is cut out, an eighth of an inch deep, by small 
sharp knives, leaving the parts of the block occupied by black 
lines or dots. The printing from this block is performed by 
first slightly and evenly wetting the characters with Chinese 
printing-ink, by means of a damp brush, and then a sheet of 
paper, placed on the block, is pressed down on all its surface 
lightly and quickly by a dry brush passed to and fro several 
times. This sheet is then removed, and forms the handbill or 
a page of the book. Good printing requires experience, and 
care, and skill, or the block will be unevenly inked, in which 
case some of the characters on the page will be darker or 
blacker than others. If too much force is used, the paper will 
be torn by the passage of the dry brush over it. Chinese 
printing-ink is usually made out of common soot and the wa- 
ter in which rice has been boiled. Books never have stiff 
pasteboard or leather covers, but are stitched much like a 
tract or a pamphlet in Western lands. The beginning is at 
the right-hand side of the book, and the end comes where in 
an English book is the beginning. The characters are placed 
in columns, and read from top to bottom, beginning with the 
right-hand column and proceeding toward the left. The pa- 
per is printed only on one side. The name of the book, the 
number of the section or chapter, and the paging, are put in 
the centre of the sheet, and come on the outer edge of the 
leaf, where the sheet is folded — not on the top of the leaf, as in 
Western books. The notes, if any, are placed on the top of 
the page, and separated from the text by a line — not at the foot 
of the page. The title-page usually contains the number of 
the year of the reign of the emperor when the book was pub> 
lishcd, marking its date ; e, ^., if published in 1 850, the title- 
page would have upon it characters which signify ^Oth year 
of Tau Kuang, 

The Chinese language is not alphabetical, nor does the ao> 
qnisition of one character afford a reliable clew to the sound. 




PSCULIABITIE3 OF THE LANGUAGE. 68 

use, or meaning of another. It is principally monosyllabic. 
Each character represents an idea, or is the name of a thing. 
The characters are composed of a few different-shaped strokes, 
and are distinguished by the relative positions of these strokes. 
These strokes are not used in the composition of a character, 
as letters are used in the formation of an English word. The 
form of the characters is arbitrary, and the number of charac- 
ters very great. A knowledge of three or four thousand is 
sufficient for the reading of most books. The pronunciation 
of the characters is difficult to foreigners, from the fact that 
certain tones of voice, and, in many cases, certain aspirated or 
guttural modulations, are necessary to be carefully observed. 
The tones may be illustrated thus : a character represented in 
English by the letters s-i-n-g, if pronounced in an even, level, 
and slow tone of voice, would mean heart; another character, 
represented by the same English letters, with a tonal mark, if 
pronounced in a sharp, quick, and angry tone of voice, would 
mean spirit or god. The aspirated modulations referred to 
may be illustrated thus : a character represented in English 
by the letters ^i-e-n-^, if pronounced in an even and slow tone 
of voice, would mean mad or crazy; another character, repre- 
sented in English by the same letters, with a mark indicating 
that it should be aspirated, when pronounced in the same even 
and slow tone, but atpiratedy would mean heaven. The print- 
ed or written language is intelligible to educated Chinese in 
all parts of the empire, just as the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., 
are understood all over Europe ; while the spoken language 
has many dialects, oflen differing widely from each other, so 
that men living in different prefectures of the same province 
are ollentimes unable to understand each other unless they 
have made their dialects a particular study, just as the nume- 
rals above referred to are pronounced differently in different 
European countries. Besides the number of the dialects, 
many of the characters have several different meanings, ac- 
cording to the breathing or the tone with which they arc pro- 
nounced, or the connection in which they occur in a printed 
or spoken sentence, just as the word jyre-s-e-n-t has two dif- 
ferent meanings, according as it is a noun or a verb. Many 
characters, too, having precisely the same sound, are written 
differently, and are very, different in signification, just as the 




64 



AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC MATTERS. 



words rite^ wright^ rights and write differ in meaning, though 
pronounced alike. Many of the characters or words, when 
pronounced according to the book or classical style, are differ- 
ent from the pronunciation given by the people in conversa- 
tion : 6. ^., the character for voice, according to the classical 
style, is called s-i-n-g, but it becomes a-t-a-n-g in the dialect of 
the people. 




iXHJSTRY flCKNB NKAB FDUCHAU. 




MANNER OF BETROTHAL. 65 



CHAPTER n. 

BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

Maimer cf Betrothal: Employment of Gobetweens, or Match-makers. — The 
eight Characters. — Fortune-teller consulted. — Description of betrothal 
Cards. — Betrothal consummated by exchanging these Cards. — Exchange 
of Presents. — Story relating to the Use of red Silk Threads. — Matches 
made in Hearen. — Customs observed between Betrothal and the Day of Mar- 
riage: Selection of lucky Days. — Wedding Cakes. — Mutual sending of 
Presents. — Bridc*s Outfit or Dowry. — ** Sifting four Eyes." — Expelling 
the Filth. — Placing the bridal Bedstead in Position. — Trying on her 
wedding Garments. — Sending the bridal Sedan for the Bride. — Ceremonies 
observed on the Day ofAfarriage : The " new Woman** at Breakfast. — The 
Bride in her Sedan. — The four Cakes and Bed-quilt. — Bridal Procession. — 
** Receiring the Bride." — Ceremonies on Arrival at her Hnsband*s Home. 
— Bride and Bridegroom sit side by side. — Worshiping Heaven and Earth. 
— Worshiping ancestral Tablets. — Drinking Wine together. — Wedding 
Dinner. — Guests present Money. — feeing the Bride in the Evening. — 
Candles in the bridal Chamber at Night. 

Manner of Betrothal, 

Betrothal in China is a matter with which the parties 
most deeply concerned have generally little to do. Their pa- 
rents or guardians manage their betrothal much in the follow- 
ing manner : 

A person is employed as a gobetween, or match-maker be- 
tween the families. The proverb says, " Without a gobetween, 
a betrothal can not be effected." This person may be either 
a man or a woman. Usually the gobetween engaged by the 
family which first makes the proposal is employed by both 
families in subsequent negotiations. 

The negotiation is generally commenced by the family to 
which the boy or the young man belongs. The gobetween is 
furnished with a card stating the ancestral name, and the eight 
characters which denote the hour, day, month, and year of birth 
of the candidate for matrimony. This card he takes to the 
family indicated, and tenders a proposal of marriage in regard 
to a danghter in behalf of a son of the party employing him. 




66 BETBOTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

If the parents or guardians of the girl, after instituting inqui- 
ries about the family making it, are willing to entertain the pro- 
posal, they consult a fortune-teller, who decides, after consider- 
ing the eight characters which indicate the time of the birth of 
the parties, whether the betrothal would be fitting and auspi- 
cious. If a favorable decision is made, the gobetween is fur- 
nished with a card indicating the hour, day, month, and year 
when the girl they are willing to betroth was bom, which he 
delivers to the family which employed him. The parents of 
the lad then consult a fortune-teller in regard to the proposed 
betroth men t, furnishing him with the characters which indi- 
cate the ages of the boy and the girl. If this fortune-teller 
pronounces favorably, and the two families agree in regard to 
the details of the marriage, a formal assent is made to the be- 
trothment. If for the space of three days, while the betrothal 
is under consideration in each of the families, after the card 
having the eight characters has been received from the other 
family, any thing reckoned unlucky — such as breaking a bowl 
or the losing of an article — should occur, the negotiation would 
be broken off at once, and the card would be returned to the 
party which sent it. The card during this time is usually 
])laced under the censer, standing in front of the ancestral tab- 
lets belonging to the family. When it is deposited there, in- 
cense and candles are lighted before these tablets. 

As above intimated, the gobetween is sometimes instructed 
where to make application ; but in case ho receives no defi- 
nite instruction, he seeks out a family which he supposes will 
be acceptable to his employers. In such a case, he generally 
first makes inquiries of each family whether the other is ac- 
ceptable, and then furnishes the family to which the girl be- 
longs with the card relating to the age of the boy, should the 
]>roposed rJliance be found mutually desirable. Singular as it 
may seem, families the most intimately acquainted and most 
friendly always employ a gobetween in the bctrothment of 
their sons and daughters. On the other hand, families which 
previously were utter strangers are very frequently made ac- 
quainted by reputation, not necessarily in person, through the 
overtures of a gobetween for the betrothment of a son or 
daughter. 

The betrothal is not binding on tlio parties until a kind of 




INTERCHANGE OP BETROTHAL CARDa 67 

pasteboard card has been interchanged between them. This 
card resembles somewhat a book-cover, consisting of two 
pieces of pasteboard. One of these is made much like the 
cover of a pasteboard box, as far as its edges are concerned. 
The outside of it is covered with red paper. On this red pa- 
per is pasted a likeness of a dragon or a phoenix, according as 
it is designed for the boy or the girl, the dragon or the phoenix 
being made out of gilt paper. This cover-like piece of paste- 
board shuts down on the other part. They are connected to- 
gether by a paper pasted on one edge of both, somewhat as 
the two parts of a book-cover are fastened together. Their 
inner surfaces are covered over neatly by a piece of red paper. 
The family of the bridegroom provides two of these cards, 
one having a gilt dragon on it and the other a gilt phoenix. 
On the inside of the former, the ancestral and given name of 
the boy's father, his own given name, and the characters which 
denote the precise time of his birth, the name of the gobe- 
tween, and a few other particulars, are neatly written. There 
are also provided two long and large threads of red silk and 
four large needles. Two of these needles are threaded upon 
one of the silk threads, one needle being at each end of the 
thread, and then the needles are stuck in a particular manner 
into the inside of that card on the outside of which is the im- 
age of a dragon. The other card left blank, the other two 
needles and the other red silk thread, together with the card 
already filled out with particulars relating to the family to 
which the lad belongs, and its needles and thread attached, 
are taken by the gobetween to the family to which the girl 
belongs. This card is then filled out with particulars relating 
to the family of the girl, corresponding to the particulars al- 
ready recorded in the other. The thread and needles are also 
similarly stuck into the card having the phoenix on its outside. 
When this has been done it is sent back to the family of the 
boy, which carefully keeps it as evidence of his engagement in 
marriage; the card having the dragon on it, and relating to 
the boy, being retained and preserved by the family of the 
jnrl as proof of her betrothal. The writing on each of these 
docnments is performed in front of the ancestral tablets of the 
family to which it relates, incense and candles having been 
lighted and placed in the customary positions before them. 




68 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

These cards having been thus exchanged by the families, 
the betrotliment is consummated and legal. Afler this, nei- 
ther party may break the engagement without the gravest of 
reasons. Betrothmcnt in China is much more permanent, 
and is far less likely to be broken up, than in England or the 
United States. Very few instances occur, when, both parties 
having arrived at a marriageable age, one refuses to carry out 
the contract. 

At the time when the cards are sent to the family to which 
the girl belongs, it is also customary to send as a present for 
her a pair of silver or gold wristlets, and for her family vari- 
ous articles of food, as pigs' feet, a pair of fowls, two fish, etc. 
When they send back to the family to which the boy belongs 
the engagement card, they send also as a present a quantity 
of artificial gilt flowers, some vermicelli, and bread cakes. The 
flowers are for distribution among the female members and 
relatives of the family. The articles sent on these occasions 
as presents are, in the Chinese view, omens of good to the par- 
ties most intimately concerned. 

The Chinese, in explaining the use of the red thread, refer 
to a popular story relating to certain events said to have 
transpired some time during the Tang dynasty. The story 
runs thus : 

" In the time of the Tang dynasty, Ui-ko was once a guest 
in the city of Sung. He observed an old man by the light of 
the moon reading a book, who addressed him thus : ' This is 
the register of the engagements in marriage for all the places 
under the heavens.' lie also said to him, ' In my pocket I 
have red cords, with which I tie the feet of those who are to 
become husband and wife. When this cord has been tied, 
though the parties are of unfriendly families, or of diflferent 
nations, it is impossible to change their destiny. Your future 
wife,' said the old man, ' is the child of the old woman who 
sells vegetables in yonder shop at the north.' In a few days 
Ui-ko went to see her, and found the old woman had in her 
arms a girl about a year old, and exceedingly ugly. He hired 
a man, who went and (as ho supposed) killed the girl. Four- 
teen years afterward, in the country of Siong-chiu, was a pre- 
fect whose family-name was Mo, surnamed Tai, who gave 
Ui-ko in marriage a girl who he aflirmed was his own daogb- 




MATCHES MADE IN H^AYEN. B9 

ter. She was very beaatifol. On her eyebrow she always 
wore an artificial flower. Ui-ko constantly asking her why 
she wore the flower, she at length said/ 1 am the daughter of 
the prefect's brother. My father died in the city of Sung 
when I was but an infant. My nurse was an old woman who 
sold vegetables. One day she took me with her out into the 
streets, when a robber struck me. The scar of the wound is 
still left on my eyebrow.' " 

The red silk thread indicates that the engagement of the 
parties in marriage is fixed and unalterable. In common par- 
lance, it is said that their feet have been tied together^ referring 
to the language found onginally in the story above given. 
The Chinese seem to be firm believers in the sentiments that 
Fate or Heaven decides who are to become husband and wife, 
and that the act of parents in engaging their children is an 
exponent of the will of Heaven or of the decrees of Fate, cor- 
responding to the Western saying that " Matches are made 
in heaven." 

Some say that these threads are kept professedly for the i 
pnrpose of tying together the goblets out of which the bride | 
and bridegroom drink wine on the day of their marriage. 
Sometimes they are actually thus used on that occasion. 
More frequently, however, a new red cord or string is then 
nsed, and the old cords taken and put into the cue of the 
bridegroom, or worked into the shoes worn by the bride on 
the day of their marriage, as omens of good. The use of the 
large needles in betrothing parties is also auspicious. Ac- 
cording to some, they serve to draw the thread along. It is 
sagely asked. What is the use of a thread, unless there is a 
needle with which to use it ? When viewed in this light, the 
use of the needles is very manifest. 

Customs observed between Betrothal and Day of Marriage. 
The time which transpires between betrothal and marriage 
varies from a month or two to eighteen or twenty years, de- 
pending much on the age of the parties. From one to three 
months before the marriage a fortunate day is selected for its 
celebration. Generally a member of the family of the bride- 
groom, or a trusty friend, takes the eight horary characters 
which denote the birth-time for each of the affianced parties, 




70 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

and for each of their parents, if living, to a fortane-teller, who 
selects lucky days and times for the marriage, for the cutting 
of the wedding garments, for the placing of the bridal bed in 
position, for the finishing of the curtains of the bridal bed, for 
the embroidering of the bridal pillows, and for the entering 
of the sedan, on the part of the bride, on the day of her mar- 
riage. These items aiie written out on a sheet of red paper, 
which is sent to the family of the girl by the hands of the go- 
between. If accepted, the periods specified become the fixed 
times for the performance of the particulars indicated, and 
both parties proceed to make the necessary arrangements for 
the approaching wedding. 

Presenting the wedding-cakes and material for bridal dress 
to the family of the bride by the other party is next in order. 
The relative time usually adopted for the performance of this 
custom is about one month before the day fixed for the mar- 
riage. The number of these " cakes of ceremony ^^^ or wed- 
ding-cakes, varies from several score to several hundreds. 
They are round, and about an inch thick, weighing generally 
about one pound and ten or twelve ounces each, and measure 
nearly a foot in diameter. They are made out of wheat flour, 
and contain in the middle some sugar, lard, and small pieces 
of fat pork, mixed together in a kind of batter, and then 
cooked : they are, in fact a sort of mince-pies. There is also 
sent a sum of money, of greater or less amount, according to 
previous agreement, a quantity of red cloth or silk, usually not 
less than fivQ kinds, for the use of the bride, five kinds of dried 
fruits, several kinds of small cakes, a cock and a hen, and a 
gander and a goose. The top one of the various stacks of , 
these wedding-cakes, as they are carried through the streets, 
has several small doll-like figures, made out of wheat flour, 
each a few inches high, and fastened upon slips of bamboo, 
stuck into it. The family of the girl, on receiving these wed- 
ding-cakes, proceed to distribute them among their relatives 
and intimate friends. The small cakes are also distributed in 
a similar manner. The money sent is generally spent in out- 
fitting the bride. 

The above description relates more particularly to the kind 
and amount of presents made by the poor and the lower classes 
of society. Rich families make much more valuable presents 




INTKBCHANGB OF PRESENTS. 71 

than above indicated. These presents are carried through 
the streets in such a manner that they can be seen by every 
one. The rich present costly head-dresses, wristlets, and other 
ornaments worn by ladies. They add two jars of wine, on 
one of which is a picture of a dragon, and on the other a pic- 
ture of the phoenix ; also a male and a female goat, ten or 
moro pieces of silk, or satin, or crape, of five different kinds or 
colors. Presents of money are also sent for one of the bride's 
maternal uncles, and for one of her paternal uncles, if she have 
80ch relatives living. On some of these parcels, tastefully 
done np in red paper, are written propitious words or sen- 
tences. 

At the time of sending these presents to the family of the 
bride, there are also sent two large red cards. On the out- 
side of one there is a likeness of the dragon, and on the other 
a likeness of the phoenix. In the former are written the an- 
cestral name of the bridegroom's parents, the name of the go- 
between, and frequently a number of felicitous words and sen- 
tences. In the other there are written the ancestral name of 
the bride's parents, the name of the gobetween, and felicitous 
sentences. 

The parents of the bride, or her guardians, receive only a 
part of the proffered presents, returning the balance, to which 
they add some articles for the parents of the bridegroom. 
They accept all the money, and all the silks and satins design- 
ed for the use of the girl, but only the male of each pair of an- 
imals, one of the jars of wine, and a part of the large cakes of 
ceremony and the small cakes, and such a proportion of the 
qjtber things as custom requires. The rest of the things, as 
the female animals, a few of the cakes, etc., together with the 
card having the name of the bride's family, are returned to 
the other party. They send also a pair of large red candles, 
one having a dragon and the other a phoenix painted on it, a 
pair of large pewter candlesticks, two packages of white Chi- 
nese vermicelli, a pair of satin boots, a red official cap, and 
material for a kind of dress-coat, and a large quantity of arti- 
ficial flowers, made out of velvet, or of pith paper generally 
known as " rice paper." 

Many poor families do not make such expensive presents 
in retam as above indicated, while many rich families make 




72 BETROTHAL AND MABRIAGE. 

much more valuable ones. Every family makes just as expen- 
sive presents as it can afford to make, on account of the strong 
popular desire to be showy and appear liberal. 

The large cakes returned to the family of the groom are 
divided into four or eight pieces. One of these pieces is given 
to each family of near relatives or very intimate friends of the 
family of the groom, together with a little of the vermicelli, 
and one of the artificial flowers. This distribution of cakes 
among the relatives and friends of the parties is an intimation 
that a relative or child of a dear friend is soon to be married. 
These families may expect to receive at the proper time a 
formal invitation to the wedding. 

A few days before the day fixed for the wedding, the fami- 
ly of the bridegroom again makes a present of various articles 
of food and other things to the family of the bride, as a cock 
and a hen, a leg and foot of a pig and of a goat, eight small 
cakes of bread, eight torches, three pairs of large red candles, 
a quantity of vermicelli, and several bunches of fire-crackers. 
There is also sent a girdle, a head-dress, a silken covering for 
the head and face, and several articles of ready-made clothing, 
which are usually borrowed or rented for the occasion. These 
are to be worn by the bride on her entering the bridal sedan 
to be carried to the home of her husband on the morning of 
her marriage. The food, or a part of it, including the cock, is 
to be eaten by her on that morning. The fire-crackers are for 
explosion on the road, and the torches are for burning during 
the time occupied eti route to her new home. On each of the 
eight bread-cakes is made a large red character in an ancient 
form of writing, of an auspicious meaning, as "longevity,** 
"happiness," "official emolument," and "joy;" or certain 
four of them have four characters, meaning " the phoenixes are 
singing in concert," or " the ducks are seeking their mates.** 
Four of these bread-loaves are accepted ; the remaining four 
and the hen, according to strict custom, are returned to the 
party which proffers them. The bread-cakes and the vermicelli 
are omens significant of good, owing to a play on the local 
sound of the characters which denote them, or in consequence 
of the shape of the article. The vermicelli is significant of 
" longevity," because of its length ; and the four bread-cakes 
reserved by the family of the bride are kept for m singu* 




SIFTING FOUR EYES. 73 

lar use, on the morning of the girl's entering her bridal 
chair. 

Some two or three days before the time fixed for the wed- 
ding, a red card is sent by the family of the bride to the other 
party, stating what furniture will be furnished as the bride's 
dowry, and the number of loads. The person who takes this 
card — usually the gobetween — informs the family of the 
groom .what time these things may be expected. The main 
object of this notification is said to be that the family of the 
bridegroom may prepare and have in readiness the proper 
amount of money, duly put in red paper, or tied around by a 
red string, for the bearers of the furniture. It is customary 
for this family to pay these bearers on arrival in money thus 
prepared ; and, if not ready for them, confusion might arise 
on an occasion when it is desired that every thing should be 
pleasant and respectable. These bearers expect to receive 
several times as much on delivery of the furniture, if the fami- 
lies concerned are wealthy, as their labor would on other oc- 
casions be worth. 

Generally, on the afternoon or evening before the sending 
of the outfit, a very singular custom is observed by the bride, 
assisted by one or two women, who are employed to aid her 
for a few days before and subsequent to her marriage. This 
custom is called sifting four eyes^ and is regarded as an omen 
of good. A large round sieve-like utensil, made out of bam- 
boo splints, in diameter about three or four feet, is procured ; 
also a brass vessel, two or three feet in diameter and about 
one foot high, which is placed on a pedestal, raising it a short 
distance from the floor. After having placed in this vessel a 
quantity of burning coals, they take the wedding garments 
one by one, or in convenient quantities, and having laid them 
on this sieve, the women hold it, with its contents, for a mo- 
ment or two over the vessel, with a slight sifting movement. 
Tliey then remove this portion of her clothing from the sieve, 
and, taking another portion, they place it on the sieve and go 
through the same ceremony, and so on, until all of her outfit, 
as regards personal clothing, shoes, and head ornaments, has 
been properly sifted. Sometimes a similar ceremony is also 
performed with regard to the small articles of the household 
furniture which is designed for the bride's use in her future 

Vol. I.— D 




74 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

home. Those who hold the sieve during the sifting are contin* 
ually uttering various sentiments, which have tome to be con- 
sidered as peculiarly appropriate to the occasion and propi- 
tious, as, "a thou8a?id eyea^ ten thousand eyes toe si/t out; 
gold and silvery toealth and precious things^ toe si/t inJ'^ On 
the sieve, during this performance, are placed ten chopsticks. 
The meaning of this is, that though so much clothing and fur- 
niture shall have soon been given away with the girl, and thus 
have Ibecome the property of another family, still clothing and 
food will " remain" to her parents. It is necessary to explain 
that, in order to come to this conclusion from the premises, 
advantage has to be taken of a play on the local name for 
chopsticks. According to the dialect spoken at Fuhchau, the 
name of " chopsticks^^ and the sound of a certain term for the 
idea of " still remainingy'* are exactly alike, though the char- 
acters for the two ideas of" chopsticks" and " still remaining'* 
are very differently icritten. 

Why this ceremony is called " sifting four eyes," the Chi- 
nese differ greatly among themselves. Many seem to have 
no definite idea in regard to its meaning, though they affirm 
its prevalence. It is regarded as having a cleansing or puri- 
fying effect. In some way, evil and unpropitious influences 
are firmly believed to be expelled or warded off by the process 
of sifting the clothing of the expectant bride. After the arti- 
cles have been sifted, contact with them is carefully avoided 
by the female members of her family. It is supposed that it 
would be especially unlucky for her and her affianced husband 
should any pregnant woman, or any person wearing mourn- 
ing, handle, or in any manner come in contact with any of the 
articles already sifted before they are carried over to the fu- 
ture home of the girl. Such a contact would be expected to 
produce death in her husband's family, or a future miscarriage 
on her part, or quarrels and misunderstandings between him 
and her, or some undesirable result. Every thing sifted is 
carefully packed away, and great relief is experienced when 
the furniture and trunks of clothing have started for the resi- 
dence of the bridegroom. 

A ceremony similar to "sifting four eyes," though called 
" expelling the filth," is sometimes performed not long pre- 
vious to the marriage day at the house of the bridegroom. 




SENDING THE BRIDAL OUTFIT. 75 

with reference to his personal apparel, especially his wedding 
suit, for the purpose of warding off any pernicious influences. 

At the time indicated on the card, the dowry of the bride is 
carried in procession through the streets with as much parade 
and show as the amount of the furniture will possibly admit 
Not unfrequently, when the parties are near neighbors, the 
procession of porters or bearers, instead of taking the shortest 
rente from the residence of the bride to the residence of the 
groom, takes a circuitous route through the principal streets 
for the purpose of exhibiting the furniture. In the case of the 
rich, often a large amount of superior household furniture, as 
wardrobes, tables, chairs, trunks, coverlets or quilts, the ex- 
terior of which is silk or satin, and various less showy yet 
expensive articles, is thus carried in procession through the 
streets. The number of persons employed in transporting 
these things sometimes amounts to one hundred, or even more. 
Those who can afford the expense have some of the articles 
bonnd around or fastened to the carrying-poles with pieces 
of red silk, or red crape, or red cotton cloth. This is consid- 
ered a great day for the families most especially concerned, 
and every thing connected with the procession is designed for 
display. Probably there is quite as much vanity and desire 
for show, in connection with a bridal outfit, among the Chinese 
as in Western lands. 

This outfit is procured, in most cases, to a great extent, by 
means of the money which has been furnished the family of 
the bride by the family of the groom for that purpose. In 
the case of wealthy families, little dependence is actually placed 
on receiving money for this object, though valuable presents 
of money are always made to the family of the bride by the 
other party. The poor generally find it impossible, in marry- 
ing off a daughter, to be at much expense over and above the 
amount of money received from the family of their future son- 
in-law. 

It is customary for friends and relatives of the bride's fam- 
ily, who have received "cakes of ceremony," to make presents 
of materials for clothing, artificial flowers, or other ornaments 
for the head, to her family. These presents are designed to 
constitute a part of the bride's outfit. 

Placing the bridal bedstead in the position where it is to 




76 BETROTHAL AND HAKRIAGE. 

Stand is an important ceremony. When the day selected ar- 
rives, which is generally only a few days before the wedding, 
the bedstead is arranged in some convenient place in the 
bride's chamber, and then, for a considerable time, it mnst not 
be moved for fear of ill luck. This placing of the bedstead in 
position is attended with various superstitions acts. Five 
coins, belonging to the reigns of five different emperors, are 
usually scattered around on the bottom of the bedstead — ^that 
is, under the piece of matting with which such a bedstead is 
provided. Sometimes four other similar sets of coins are 
placed under the bedstead, one set being put near the foot of 
each bed-post. Five bunches of boiled rice, each consisting 
of five bundles, made in shape like a cone, from four to six 
inches in length, and done up in leaves and bound around 
with a red cotton string, are hung up from the frame provided 
for suspending the curtain of the bed. One of these bunches 
is larger than the others, and is hung up from the middle of 
the curtain frame, four smaller bunches being suspended at 
the four corners of it. The middle one is called the " moth- 
er," and the four at the corners are called " children." Usu- 
ally the middle conical rice pyramid in each of these five 
bunches is larger than the other pyramids of the bunch of 
which it is a part. In such a case, the middle one of each 
bunch is called the " mother," and the smaller conical pyra- 
mids which are placed around it arc called the "children." 
Five taros, one being large and four being small, are somc^ 
times arranged on the floor under the bedstead and near each 
of its feet, the large one occupying the central position of each 
set. A square wooden vessel, neatly painted, and larger at 
the top than at its bottom, holding about a peck, is placed on 
the centre of the bedstead. The vessel is about half filled 
with uncooked rice. On the top of the rice is spread a sheet 
of red paper. On this paper is arranged a variety of artioles, 
among which are ten pairs of chopsticks, a small brass mirror, 
a pair of shears, a foot measure, a small case containing mon- 
ey-scales, five kinds of dried fruits, a loose-skinned orange, (if 
in season) some fresh flowers, a glass lamp containing oil, and 
two candles, placed one near each of the front comers of the 
vessel. The lamp and the candles are lighted, and the vessel 
is lefl untouched on the bedstead until the candles and the oil 




TRYING ON HER WEDDING GARMENTS. 77 

have burned oat, after which it is removed. Care is taken 
that these lights are not extinguished by a draft of air or by 
accident, as such premature extinguishment would be surely 
regarded as an omen of evil to those who are expected to oc- 
cupy the bed. The object of the performance of this nonsens- 
icsd ceremony, as a whole, is to secure prosperity to the couple 
after their marriage, especially with regard to the bearing of 
children in their family in successive generations. The five 
cash of five successive emperors, etc., are good omens of such 
fruitfulness on the part of the expectant bride, or of general 
prosperity to the family. The light of the lamp and of the 
candles, although in broad daylight, is regarded as peculiarly 
efficacious in keeping away evil spirits. 

Usually, the day before the wedding, the bride has her hair 
done up in the style of married women of her class in society, 
and tries on the clothes she is to wear in the sedan and for a 
time after she arrives at her future home on the morrow. 
This is an occasion of great interest to her family. Her par- 
ents invite their female relatives and friends to a feast at their 
house. The professed object of trying on the clothing is to 
see how the articles provided will fit, and to ascertain that ev- 
ery thing is ready, so that there may bo no delay or confusion 
on the arrival of the hour when she is to take her seat in her 
sedan. While thus dressed (the thick veil designed to con- 
ceal her features on arrival at her husband's residence not 
now being worn), she proceeds to light incense before the an- 
cestral tablets belonging to her father's family, and to worship 
them for the last time before her marriage. She also kneels 
down before her parents, her grandparents (if living), her un- 
cles and aunts (if present), and worships them in much the 
same manner as she and her husband will on the morrow 
worship his parents and grandparents, and the ancestral tab- 
lets belonging to his family. On the occasion of the girl's 
trying on these clothes and worshiping the tablet and her par- 
ents, it is considered unpropitious that those of her female rel- 
atives and friends who are in mourning should be present. 

The bridal chair is selected by the family of the bridegroom, 
and sent to the residence of the bride generally on the after- 
noon preceding the wedding-day, attended by a band of mu- 
iic, some men carrying lighted torches, two carrying a pair of 




78 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



large red lanterns, containing candles also lighted, and one 
having a large red umbrella, and one or two friends or other 
attendants. The bridal chair is always red, and is generally 




UBIDAI. 8SDAM. 



covered with broadcloth, or some rich expensive material. It 
is borne by four men, who wear caps having red tassels. The 
musicians, and all the persons employed in the procession, 
have similar caps. If the families of the bride and bridegroom 
are wealthy, the attendants are more numerous than above in- 
dicated, and arS clothed in as good clothing as can be con- 
veniently procured by them. The musicians occasionally play 
on their instruments along the road. On nearing the resi- 
dence of the bride, the whole procession is brought into order. 
The house is reached while the band is playing briskly and 
every person is in his proper place, making as imposing an ap- 
pearance as possible. Those who accompany the sedan are 
feasted at the expense of the family of the bride, and the mu- 
sicians enliven the festivities of the occasion at intervals dur- 
ing the evening. They are provided with lodgings also by 
the family, so as to be ready for the duties of the following 
morning. 

Ceremonies observed on the Day of Marriage. 
Very early on the morning of her marriage the bride or the 
" new woman" arises, bathes, and dresses. While she is bath- 
ing the musicians are required to play. Her breakfast con- 
sists theoretically of the fowl, the vermicelli, etc., sent by the 
family of her affianced husband. In fact, however, she eats 




TAKING HER SEAT IN THE SEDAN. 79 

and drinks very little of any thing on the morning or during 
the day of her wedding, according to the very singalar, if not 
soperstitions notions of this people, which it is not proper to 
detail. Her imaginary breakfast on these articles is regarded 
as an omen of good, and conducive to her long life in harmony 
with her husband. The outer garments, including the veil 
provided by her husband for the occasion, are richly embroi- 
dered with a likeness of the dragon. In ancient times a cer- 
tain empress graciously granted the privilege of wearing such 
apparel to brides on the morning of their marriage, and also 
permitted them to be borne by four bearers, as well as to wear 
temporarily a very gaudy head-dress, worn generally by the 
wives of high officers. 

' When the precise time approaches for taking her scat in 
her sedan, usually between five and eight o'clock in the morn- 
ing, previously fixed by the fortune-teller, her toilet is com- 
pleted by one of her parents taking the thick veil and placing 
it over her head, completely covering her features from view. 
She is now led out of her room by one of her female assist- 
ants, and takes her seat in the sedan, which has been brought 
into the reception-room of the house. The floor from her 
room to the sedan is covered for the occasion with a kind of 
red carpeting, so that her feet may not touch the ground. 
She takes her place in the sedan amid the sound of fire-crack- 
ers and music by the band. The bride, her mother, and the 
various members of the family, are required by custom to in- 
dulge during this morning in hearty and protracted crying — 
oftentimes, no doubt, sincere and unaffected. 

While seated in the sedan, but before she starts for her fu- 
ture home, her parents, or some members of her family, take 
a bed-quilt by its four comers, and, while holding it thus be- 
fore the bridal chair, one of the bride's assistants tosses into 
the air, one by one, four bread-cakes, in such a manner that 
they will fall into the bed-quilt. These bread-cakes were re- 
ceived from the family of her husband at the same time as the 
cock and vermicelli were received. The woman during this 
ceremony is constantly repeating felicitous sentences, which 
are absented to by some others of the company. Tlie quilt 
containing these cakes is gathered up and carried immediate- 
ly to an adjoining room. 




80 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

The object of this ceremony is explained to be to profit the 
family of the bride's parents, being an omen of good, which is 
in some manner indicated to the Chinese apprehension by the 
qailt and the cakes being retained in the house — the local 
sound of the common term for ^' bread,'' and a certain word 
meaning " to warrant," " to secure," being identical. Soon 
after this the bridal procession starts en route for the resi- 
dence of the other party, amid explosions of fire-crackers and 
the music of the band. 

In the front of the procession go two men carrying two 
large lighted lanterns, having the ancestral or family name of 
the groom cut in a large form out of red paper pasted upon 
them. Then come two men carrying similar lanterns, having 
the family name of the bride in a similar manner pasted on 
them. These belong to her family, and accompany her only 
a part of the way. Then comes a large red umbrella, followed 
by men carrying lighted torches, and by the band of music. 
Near the bridal chair are several brothers of the bride or 
friends of her family, and several friends or brothers of the 
groom. These latter are dispatched from the house of the 
groom early in the morning, for the purpose of meeting the 
bridal procession, and escorting the bride to her home. This 
deputation sometimes arrives at the house of the bride before 
she sets out on her journey, and, if so, it accompanies the pro- 
cession all the way. About midway between the homes of 
the bride and the groom the procession stops in the street, 
while the important ceremony of receiving the bride is formal- 
ly transacted. The friends of the bride stand near each other, 
and at a little distance stand the friends of the groom. The 
former produce a large red card, having the ancestral name 
of the bride's family written on it ; the latter produce a simi- 
lar card bearing the ancestral name of the groom. These they 
exchange, and each, seizing his own hands d la Chinois, bows 
toward the members of the other party. The two men in the 
front of the procession who carry the lanterns having the an- 
cestral name of the groom now turn about, and, going be- 
tween the sedan chair and the two men who carry the lan- 
terns having the ancestral name of the bride, come back to 
they* former position in the procession, having gone around 
the party which has the lanterns with the bride's ancestral 





!>-» 




TIME OF CHANGING THE BRIDE's NAME. 83 

Dame attached. This latter party, while the other is thus en- 
circling it, turns round in an opposite direction, and starts for 
the residence of the family of the bride, accompanied by that 
part of the escort which consisted of. her brothers or the 
friends of her family. The rest of the procession now pro- 
ceeds on its way to the residence of the bridegroom, the band 
playing a lively air. At intervals along the street fire-crackers 
are exploded. It is said that, from the precise time when the 
two parties carrying lanterns having the ancestral names of 
the two families attached separate from each other in the 
street, the name of the bride is changed into the name of her 
betrothed ; the lanterns having his name attached remaining 
in the procession, while those which have her (former) name 
are taken back to the residence of her father's family. From 
this time during the day she generally is in the midst of en- 
tire personal strangers, excepting her female assistants, who 
accompany the procession, and keep with her wherever she 
goes. 

On arriving ^ the door of the bridegroom's house, fire- 
crackers are let off in largo quantities, and the band plays 
very vigorously. The torch-bearers, lantern-bearers, and the 
musicians stop near the door. The sedan is carried into the 
reception-room, and a sieve, such as was used in the ceremony 
of " siding four eyes," is put on the top of it, over its door. 
The floor, from the place where the sedan stops to the door of 
the bride's room, is covered with red carpeting, lest her feet 
should touch the floor. A woman who has borne both male 
and female children, or, at least, male children, and who lives 
in harmonious subjection to her husband, approaches the door 
of the sedan, and utters various felicitous sentences. If she is 
in good pecuniary circumstances, and if her parents are living 
and of a learned family, so much the more fortunate. A boy 
six or eight years old, holding in his hands a brass mirror, 
with the reflecting surface turned from him and toward the 
chair, also comes near, and invites the bride to alight. At the 
same time, the married woman who has uttered propitious 
words advances, as if to open the door of the sedan, when one 
of the female assistants of the bride, who accompanied the pro- 
cession, steps forward and opens it. The married woman re- 
ferred to, and the boy, are employed by the family of the 




84 BETROTHAL AND MABRIAQE. 

groom, and receive a small present for their services, which 
are considered quito important and ominous of good. The 
mirror held by the lad is expected to ward off all deadly or 
pernicious influences which may emanate from the sedan. 

The bride is now aided by her female assistants to alight 
from the sedan. While being led toward the door of her 
room, the sieve which was placed over the door of the bridal 
chair on its arrival is sometimes held over her head, and some- 
times it is placed directly in front of the door of the sedan, so 
that, on stepping out, she will step into it. During all this 
time the features of the bride, the observed of all observers, 
are entirely concealed by the thick covering put over her 
head by one of her parents at her parental residence. 

The groom, on the approach of the bridal procession, disap- 
pears from the crowd of friends and relatives who have as- 
sembled at his residence on the happy occasion, and takes his 
position standing by the side of the bedstead, having his face 
turned toward the bed. When the bride enters the room, 
guided by her assistants, ho turns around, and remains stand- 
ing with his face turned from the bed. As soon as she has 
reached his side, both bridegroom and bride simultaneously 
seat themselves, side by side, on the edge of the bedstead. 
Oftentimes the groom manages to have a portion of the skirt 
of her dress come under him as he sits down by her, such a 
thing being considered as a kind of omen that she will be sub- 
missive. Sometimes the bride is very careful, by a proper ad- 
justment of her clothing at the moment of sitting down, not 
only to prevent the accomplishment of such an intention on 
his part, but also to sit down, if possible, in such a manner 
that some of his dress will come under her, thus manifesting 
her determination to preserve a proper independence, if not to 
bring him actually to yield obedience to her will. After sit- 
ting thus in profound silence together for a few moments, the 
groom arises and leaves the room. Before going .out, tho as- 
sistants of the bride oftentimes request him to rub the feet of 
his bride a little, under the impression that, if he should com- 
ply, her feet will be prevented by that act from aching in the 
future ! 

The groom waits in the reception-room for the reappear- 
ance of his bride. The ceremony which they are soon to per- 




WORSHIPING THE TABLETS. 



86 



form is considered an essential part of the customs observed 
on the day of the marriage of heathen Chinese in this part of 
the empire, and doubtless, with some unimportant modifica- 
tions, all over China. 

The ceremony, as a whole, is called ^^ worshiping the tem- 
ple.'' A table is placed in the front part of the reception- 
room. The table is said to be placed " before heaven." Two. 
candlesticks, containing two large lighted candles, and a cen- 




wmsim AMD BUDiaaooM wobbqifino tiue tablsts or iiib nccxAHKn ANOKsrosa 



ser containing lighted incense, are put upon this table, the 
censer between the candlesticks. Among other things, tlicrc 
are also placed on it two miniature white cocks, made of 
sugar, five kinds of dried fruit, a bundle of chopsticks, a foot 
measure, a mirror, a pair of shears, and a case containing mon- 
ey-scales. Some or all of these are frecjuently placed on a 
platter made out of the wood of the willow-tree. Two singu- 




86 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

larly-shaped goblets, soraetiraes connected together by a red 
silk or red cotton cord several feet long, are also put upon the 
table. When every thing is ready, the bride is led out of her 
room, and takes her place by the table on the right side of the 
groom. The faces of both parties are turned toward the table 
— that is, toward the open light of the heavens. At certain 
signals from one of the female assistants of the bride, who is 
aided to do her part by these women, both parties kneel down 
four times, each time bowing their heads toward the earth 
once in profound silence. They then rise to their feet and 
change places, the bride standing on the left of the bride- 
groom. They now kneel down four times, bowing their heads 
as before. This portion of the ceremony is called " worship- 
ing heaven ajid earths They then turn around, so that their 
faces are toward t/ie inner or back side of the room, instead of 
toward the front or outside, as before, the bride being on the 
right side of her husband. The ancestral tablets having been 
previously placed on a table in the back side of the room, 
and candles and incense having been lighted and arranged 
near them in the customary way, the bridegroom and bride 
now bow down and worship these tablets eight times, accord- 
ing to the manner after which they have just "worshiped 
heaven and earth."* They again resume their original rela- 
tive positions, differing only in that they face each other^ and 
do not stand side by side. Separated from each other by only 
a few feet, they now kneel down four times again, and bow 
their heads once each time toward the ground. After this 
they rise to their feet, and remain standing in silence, while 
they are helped to the wedding wine. One of the female as- 
sistants takes the two goblets, which sometimes are said to be 
tied together by a red cord, from the table, and, having par- 
tially filled them with a mixture of wine and honey, she pours 
some of their contents from one into the. other, back and forth 
several times. She then holds one to the mouth of the groom, 
and the other to the mouth of the bride, who continue to face 
each other, and who then sip a little of the wine. She then 
changes the goblets, and the bride sips out of the one just used 

* This worship of the tablets is sometimes omitted on the first day of the 
festiritics, especially in cases where the wedding ceremonies are not all 
crowded into one dnv. 




DRINKING SAMSHU TOGETHER. 87 




DBIDB AND IIBII>BOKOOM imilfKINO HAMSIIV TOOmiKB. 

by the groom, aod the groom sips out of the one just used by 
the bride, the goblets oftentimes remaining tied together. 
Sometimes she uses only one goblet in giving the wine. She 
then places the goblets on the table, and proceeds to break off 
m bit of the sugar cocks and give to the bridegroom and to 
the bride; perhaps also a few of the five kinds of fruit which 
have been provided is handed to them. After this the groom 
nsaally takes the bunch of chopsticks in one hand and the long 
case which contains the money-scales in the other, and makes 
a pretense of raising up by their means the thick covering 
which conceals the head and face of his bride from his view. 
It is only a pretense, and ho returns the chopsticks and the 
money-scales to the place whence he took them. This usually 
conclades the ceremony. Tlie lighted candles are taken by the 
married woman who addressed the bride with propitious Ian- 




88 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

guago on her arrival and carried into the bride's room, whither 
the groom accompanies his bride, but immediately returns to 
the public room, while she remains attended by her assistants 
to dress for dinner. 

All of the articles of food and of family use placed on the 
table during the performance of this ceremony are, according 
to the Chinese stand-point, omens of harmony and of prosper- 
ity. Eating from the same sugar cock, and drinking wine from 
the same goblets, are symbolical of union in sharing their lot 
in life. It is eminently desirable that every thing connected 
with this part of the marriage festivities should be conducted 
with proper decorum and order. 

Until this time the bride has»worn the heavy embroidered 
outside garment, head-dress, etc., which she had on when she 
entered her sedan. These are now removed. She has her 
hair carefully combed in the style of her class in society, and 
she is arrayed in her own wedding garments. Sometimes 
her hair is gorgeously decked out with pearls and gems, true 
or false, according to the ability of the family to purchase, 
rent, or borrow. 

When her toilet has been completed, and every thing has 
been made ready, the bride and bridegroom sit down in her 
room to their wedding dinner. He now, oftentimes for the 
first time in his life, and always for the first time on his mar- 
riage day, beholds the features of his wife. He may eat to 
his fill of the good things provided on the occasion, but she, 
according to established custom, may not take a particle. She 
must sit in silence, dignified and composed. The door being 
lefti open, the invited guests, and the parents of the groom and 
his relatives, improve the opportunity to scan the bride and 
observe her deportment. 

Several times during the day, if living conveniently near, the 
family of the bride send some refreshments for her to eat. 
Tliis is received with thanks, and the bearer rewarded with a 
nmall present. Custom does not allow her to partake of this 
refreshment from her parents, but demands its being sent and 
received. 

Some time during the aft;emoon the male guests sit down 
to their dinner around tables which accommodate eight per- 
sons, the seat of each being determined according to the nice 




TAKINO THEIR WEDDING DINNEB. 



89 



.^.i^. .:^*^?^ 




BKiDK AND UBIVCOBOOM TAKINU TUKIB WEDOINO DLNNKB. 

rales of Chinose etiquette. A curious custom prevails here, 
according to which every invited guest is expected to make a 
present in money to the family of the bridegroom. This 
should be sent in to the family the day before the wedding, 
though sometimes it is brought by the guest himself w hen ho 
comes to the feast. Tlie amount of the present is entirely op- 
tional, and varies from a few hundred cash to fifteen or twenty 
dollars, according to the wealth of the guest and the nearness 
of relationship. Even should the formal invitation not be com- 
plied with, the person invited remaining away, the present is 
nevertheless expected, and it would be disreputable not to 
give it. These presents in ready money help considerably to 
defray tho expenses of the occasion. 
AccordiDg to another established custom here, except in tho 




90 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

case of marriages in the families of officers and the gentry, 
neighbors, uninvited friends, or even perfect strangers to the 
parties, if they please, are allowed to come in and see the bride 
during the evening of the day of her marriage. This is a very 
trying ordeal for her, as she may not refuse to be seen by 
them, nor absent herself from the gaze of the public. She is 
obliged to stand while a company of spectators observes her 
appearance and criticises her deportment. They indulge oft- 
entimes in great liberty of remark about her, which she must 
hear with composure. She must conduct herself with deco- 
rum, neither laughing, nor becoming angry, nor engaging in 
conversation with any but her assistants, who attend her con- 
stantly, and aid her in walking and standing, presenting a 
placid and unmoved countenance, notwithstanding the witty 
jokes or the coarse impertinences of the spectators. What at 
other times would be likely to be regarded as insulting* and 
highly indecent, must be passed over as though she heard it 
not. Should she allow herself to laugh, or should she forget 
herself enough to manifest anger, it would be a source of an- 
noyance and of regret. Her husband generally absents hi^^ 
self from the public room during this evening. It not unfre- 
qucntly occurs that some of his intimate friends or neighbors 
stay very late, refusing to depart unless he pledges them a 
considerable sura of money with which to pay the expenses of 
a feast on the following day. 

The large candles which were transferred to the bride's 
room from the reception-room at the close of the ceremony of 
" worshiping heaven and earth," are permitted to bum all day 
and unto the evening, if they will. As it is eminently desira- 
ble that candles should be burned all the night long in the bri- 
dal chamber, these are usually, during the evening, exchanged 
for another pair, which it is calculated will last until the fol- 
lowing morning. These are two feet loi^, more or less, and 
of a bright red color. Usually on one is made, in a lively 
yellow color, a picture of a dragon, by the use of gold leaf, or 
of a liquid preparation called ^^gold oil ;" and on the other the 
picture of a phoenix, representing respectively the groom and 
his bride. Sometimes auspicious characters or phrases are 
written on the candles. These, lighted on the evening of the 
wedding, and arranged on the table in the bride^s room, are 




BAD OMENS DURING THE FIRST NIGHT. 91 

desired to bum during the whole night, and as much longer 
as they will last. It would be considered very unlucky should 
they be extinguished by accident. Should one or both of 
them go out during the night, such an event would indicate 
the premature and untimely death of one or both of the par- 
ties. The material of the candles should not melt and trickle 
down the sides. This is regarded as a bad omen, the trick- 
ling down of the material being thought to resemble the flow- 
ing of tears down the cheeks, and betokens, on wedding occa- 
sions, that there will be much sorrow in the family of the new- 
ly-married couple, or that they will not live happily together. 
If the candles should bum out about the same time, it is sup- 
posed that the couple will die about the same period in the 
future ; and should one burn much longer than the other, it is 
inferred that one will long survive the other. 




92 B£TBOTHAL AND MABRIAGS. 



CHAPTER m. 

BETROTHAL AND MABRIAGE — Continued, 

Customs observed subsequent to the Wedding -day: ** Coming out of the 
Koom. "—Worship of the God of the Kitchen.— On the third Day they 
visit the Bride's Parents. — Use of a Charm to ward off Evil Spirits from 
the Bride. — Worship of her Family's ancestral Tablets. — Presents from 
her Mother at the End of a Month. — Presents between the Groom and 
his Parcnts-in-Iaw. — Frequent Use of Incense and Candles. — AlisoeUa- 
neous Practices and Sentiments relcUingto Betrothal and Marriage: A "lit- 
tle Bride." — Betrothal of unborn Children. — Marriages of People of the 
same Surname interdicted. — Bridegroom living in his Father-in-law's 
Family. — ** Marrying the Wearer of a white Skirt." — Marrying within a 
hundred Days after the Death of a Parent. — "Asking for her Shoes." — 
"Broken Thread." — Bridal Procession in White. — Urging on the Mar- 
riage. — Kidnapping the Bride. — Breaking up the Betrothment. — Seven 
Keasons for Divorcing a Wife. — Three Heasons why a Wife may not be 
Divorced. — Marrying the Wife of a living Man. — Inferior Wives. — Chi- 
nese Siitteeism by Hanging. — Honorary Portals in Memory of virtuous 
and filial Widows. 

Customs observed subsequent to the Wedding-day. 

TuE wedding festivities generally last at least two days. 
The first day the male friends and relatives of the groom are 
invited to " sited their liffht'*'* on the occasion. On the second 
day the female friends and relatives of the family of the groom 
are invited to the wedding feast. This is often called the 
" women's day." 

Not long after the family and guests have breakfasted on 
the morning of the second day, the newly-married couple, 
amid the noise of fire-crackers, come out of their room togeth- 
er for the purpose of worshiping the ancestral tablets belong- 
ing to the household, the grandparents, and parents of the 
groom. This custom is known by the name of " cofning out 
of the roomP In case of those families who devote only one 
day to the marriage festivities and ceremonies, this custom is 
observed on the afternoon of the first day. 

The tablets of the family are arranged on a table standing 




WORSHIPING THE BBIDEGROOM's PARENTS. 93 

in the back part of the reception-room, or in a niche placed on 
the table. Incense and candles, arranged, according to cus- 
tom, near the tablets, having been lighted, the bridegroom 
and his bride kneel down three or foar times before the tab- 
lets, the wife being on the right-hand side of her husband. 
While on their knees, at each kneeling, they bow their heads 
down toward the ground once. On rising to their feet they 
change places, the bride standing on the left hand of her hus- 
band, and then kneel down three or foo^times again, and bow 
their heads as before, in front of and toward the tablets. They 
now arise, and two chairs are placed before the table which 
contains the incense, candles, and tablets. If the paternal 
grandparents of the groom are living and present, they take 
their seats in the chairs, the grandmother being on the right 
hand of the grandfather, with their faces turned away from 
the table, or toward the front part of the room. In case cither 
has deceased, the tablet which represents that person is placed 
in the chair which he or she would have occupied if living. 
The bridegroom and bride advance, and kneel down three or 
four times before them, bowing their heads toward the ground, 
as in worshiping the tablets. They then arise, and, having 
changed positions, the bride taking the place which had been 
occupied by the groom, kneel down and bow again three or 
four times. The parents of the groom then take their seats 
in the chairs, and the ceremony of kneeling and bowing before 
them is repeated, in like manner, the customary number of 
times. While the bride is on her knees her new mother usu- 
ally arranges some costly ornaments in her hair, as gold or 
pearls, or gives her some valuable finger-rings, if able to af- 
ford the expense of such ; or, if poor, she presents her with 
such head ornaments as she can afford. The women who as- 
sist the bride in performing these ceremonies improve the oj)- 
portnnity to offer tea to her parents at this period, and are re- 
warded for their attentions with a present of money on the 
spot. In case either parent is dead, the ancestral tablet for 
that person is placed in the chair, as in the supposed case of 
one of the grandparents having deceased. The paternal and 
maternal uncles and aunts of the groom, if present, in the or- 
der of their rank, now take their turns of being worshiped by 
the couple. Oftentimes these relatives will not sit, but con- 




94 BETBOTHAL AND MABRIAGE. 

tent themselves to stand during the worshiping rendered 
them. Standing on these occasions is regarded as a mark of 
humility. Kneeling and bowing, before a change of position 
on the part of the couple, is performed either three or four 
times, according to the option of the family of the bridegroom, 
on the occasion of " coming out of the room ;" although cus- 
tom has made it incumbent on them always to kneel and bow 
four times before changing their positions while " worshiping 
heaven and earth ;" <ire6, being an odd number, is regarded 
as inauspicious by some. 

Not long subsequent to the ceremony of " coming out of 
the room," the couple proceed to the kitchen for the purpose 
of worshiping the god and goddess of the kitchen. This is 
performed with great decorum, and is regarded as an import- 
ant and essential part of marriage solemnities. Incense and 
candles are lighted, and arranged on a table placed before the 
picture or the writing which represents these divinities, plas- 
tered upon the wall of the kitchen. Before this table the 
bridegroom and his bride kneel down, side by side, and bow 
in worship of the god and goddess of the kitchen. It is be- 
lieved that they will thus propitiate their good-will, and es- 
pecially that the bride, in attempting culinary operations, will 
succeed better in consequence of paying early and respectful 
attentions to these divinities. 

On the third day the parents of the bride send an invita- 
tion to their son-in-law and his wife to visit them. With this 
invitation they send sedans for them. The card is usually 
brought by her brothers, if she has any of the proper age, or 
by relatives having her own ancestral name. Until this morn- 
ing, since me left her former home, two days previous, the 
bride has seen none of her own family, and generally none of 
her own relatives or acquaintances. She and her husband 
now receive the congratulations and compliments of her broth- 
ers or other relatives, and prepare to visit her parents. The 
bride enters her sedan first, and proceeds a short distance in 
front of her husband. They do not start together, nor is it 
proper that they should arrive at the house of her parents at 
the same time. The chair provided for the brido on this oc- 
casion is a common black sedan in all respects, except that its 
screen in front has a certain charm painted upon the oatside. 




visrrwo the bjeudb's fabents. 



95 




CnABM TO WABD OFF XVIL BPIBIT8 
PBOM A flBlDC 



This charm is the picture of a grim- 
looking' maD, sitting on a tiger, 
with one of his hands raised up, 
holding a sword, as if in the act 
of striking, representing a certain 
ruler of elves, hobgoblins, etc. 
The object of its use on the occa- 
sion of a bride^s returning to her 
parents* house, on the third day 
after her marriage, is to keep off 
evil and un propitious influences 
from her. It is said that, in for- 
mer times, whenever a new bride 
in her chair passed by a certain 
place, evil spirits would invariably 
approach and injure her, causing 
her to be sick. The great magi- 
cian (represented by the individual 
on the tiger, and brandishing a 
sword), who is the head of a class of Tnuist priests, on being 
invited to destroy these evil spirits, or counteract their perni- 
cious influences, exerted his great powers, and actually accom- 
plished the object. In commemoration of this signal blessing 
to brides in particular and to mankind in general, and in or- 
der to secure immunity from these depraved spirits to future 
brides in other parts of the empire, the happy device of mak- 
ing a picture of this magician, and of placing it on the screen 
of the sedans they occupy on going to see their mothers on 
the third day after the marriage, was adopted. Judging from 
the nniversality of the use of this screen on such an occasion 
at the present time in this part of China, such an expedient to 
ward off unpropitious influences must be immensely advanta- 
geous! Such a charm is also sometimes found on the red bri- 
dal sedans used on the day of wedding. 

On arrival at her paternal home, the bride's sedan is carried 
into the reception-room, and she alights amid the noise of fire- 
crackers. The sedan which contains the son-in-law stops a 
few rods from his fathef-in-law's residence, where be is met by 
one of his brothers-in-law, or some relative or friend deputed 
to meet and conduct him into the house. The two parties. 




96 BETROTHAL AND MABRIAQE. 

Standing in the street, respectfully shake their own hands to- 
ward each other on meeting, according to the approved fash- 
ion. The newly-arrived is now invited to enter the house. 
He is seated in the reception-room, where he is treated suc- 
cessively to three cups of tea and three pipes of tobacca Af- 
terward he is invited to go and see his mother-in-law in her 
room, where he finds his wife. There he sits a while, and vis- 
its after a stereotyped manner, being careful to use only good 
or propitious words, avoiding every subject and phrase which, 
according to the notions of this people, are unlucky. lie is 
soon invited into the reception-room, where he is joined by 
his wife. Every thing being arranged, the husband and wife 
proceed to worship the ancestral tablets of her family, her 
grandparents and her parents, if living and present, very much 
in the way they worshiped, on the preceding day, the tablets 
of his family, his grandparents and parents. At the conclusion 
of this ceremony the bride retires to her mother's apartments, 
or to some back room, where she and the female relatives 
present are feasted. Her husband is invited to partake of 
some refreshments in the reception-room, in doing w^hich he is 
joined by his bride's brothers, or some others of her family 
relatives. According to the rules of etiquette, he must eat 
but very little, however hungry he may be. The usual phrase 
employed in speaking of it is that he eats part of " three bowls 
of vegetables," after which he declines to receive any thing 
more, under the plea that he has eaten enough. He soon 
takes his departure in his sedan, leaving his bride to follow by 
herself by-and-by, accompanied usually only by a servant or 
female friend. , 

It is a common custom, on the morning of the tenth day 
after her marriage, for the parents of the bride to send an in- 
vitation for her to spend the day w ith them. If accepted, she 
goes and returns unattended by her husband. At the end of 
a month, should they again invite her, she usually goes and 
visits with her parents, and brothers and sisters, for a few con- 
secutive days, spending the nights there. Her husband calls 
upon them during this visit perhaps once or twice in the day- 
time, but is careful neither to go there with his wife nor re- 
turn home with her. Husbands are never seen with their 
wives in public. 




FBEQUEin' USB OF INCENSE AND CANDLES. 97 

At the expiration of a month after marriage, the bride ex- 
pects to receive a present from her parents, consisting, in part, ' 
of the following articles : an image of the Goddess of Mercy, 
aniversally worshiped by married women, and a portable niche 
to put it in ; a censer to contain incense while consuming ; a 
pair of candlesticks, to hold candles while she is worshiping; a 
fan ; two flower vases ; artificial flowers ; and cosmetics. 

After the first year of his marriage, the bridegroom is ex- 
pected every year to make presents of a pig's foot, vermicelli, 
wine, and large red candles, with, perhaps, some money, to his 
father and mother-in-law, on the occurrences of their birth- 
days, at the festivals which take place during the fifth month, 
the eighth month, and at the winter solstice, and at new year's. 
During the first year of his married life, it is customary for his 
parents-in-law to make him more or less presents like the 
above, at the times of the great festivals, and especially at new 
year's day. 

At various times between the periods of betrothal and of 
marriage, three incense sticks and a brace of candles are light- 
ed and burned before the ancestral tablets of the families to 
which the affianced parties belong, for the purpose of inform- 
ing their ancestors of what is being transacted on earth rela- 
ting to the betrothment and marriage of their living descend- 
ants. When any thing is done especially relating to this sub- 
ject, snch a practice is observed by some one in the two fam- 
ilies interested. This person, when adding fresh incense to 
the censer on such occasions, usually clasps it, already lighted, 
in his hands, kneels down, and bows three times before these 
tablets ; and then, while on his knees or rising to his feet, hav- 
ing elevated the incense as high as his head or higher, places 
it in the censer with a reverent air in profound silence. Some, 
however, do not kneel previous to placing incense in the cen- 
ser. Oftentimes, in connection with this burning of incense 
and candles, a quantity of mock-money is also burned for the 
benefit of the dead ancestors. My attention has been fre- 
quently arrested by the amount of sinful superstition which 
pervades the customs a fid ceremonies relating to betrothal and 
marriage among the Chinese, The careful and serious-mind- 
ed reader will not have failed to notice this feature while pe- 
mnng the details relating to this subject. 

Vol. L— E 




98 BETROTHAL AND MABRIAGR 

How many temptations to sin do the native Christians have 
to struggle against, growing out of the established social' cus- 
toms of their countrymen ! How much do they need the 
warm sympathy, the wise advice, and ardent prayers of other 
Christians ! 

Miscellaneous Practices and Sentiments relating to Betrothal 
afid Marriage, 

Some of these practices and sentiments will be found as 
strange and opposed to the practices and sentiments common 
in civilized Western nations as any which have been de- 
scribed. 

When a girl is bom in a poor family, which it feels unable 
or is unwilling to rear, she is often given away or sold when 
but a few weeks or months old, or one or two years old, to be 
the future wife of a son in the family of a friend or relative 
which has a little son not betrothed in marriage. Generally 
a small present is proffered by the family to which the boy 
belongs, as a pair of ducks or of geese, a pair of fowls, and a 
few pounds of vermicelli, as omens of good. Of the animals, 
the male is usually received by the girl's parents, and the oth- 
ers returned to the boy's parents. A match-maker is employ- 
ed, and a formal engagement is made out, as in the case of 
boys and girls more advanced in age. The girl is called a 
" little bride," and is taken home, and brought up in the fam- 
ily together with her future husband. When of marriageable 
age, and the family can afford the little additional expense, she 
is married to her affianced on a fortunate day, which has been 
selected by a fortune-teller. Friends are invited and a feast 
is made. No bridal cakes are distributed among her relatives, 
and no red bridal chair is used, because she is living in the 
family of her husband. 

Occasionally, in the case of families very intimate and friend- 
ly, an engagement in marriage between unborn children is en- 
tered into by those who expect soon to become mothers, turn- 
ing only on the circumstance that the children are of diflferent 
sexes. If both should prove to be girls, or both boys, the con- 
ditional engagement goes for nothing. Generally, before the 
birth of tlic children, something valuable, as a head-dross, or 
rings for the wrists, are exchanged by the families, as proof 




WHAT IS IN A NAME? 99 

of the betrothal. After their birth, should the children prove 
to be a boy and a girl, a gobetween is employed, and the be- 
trothal papers are made out and exchanged in the usual way. 

Males and females of the same family surname never inter- 
marry in China. Cousins who have not the same ancestral 
names may intermarry — that is, children of sisters, or of a 
brother and of a sister, but not children of brothers. The 
Chinese say that marriages among those of the same ancestral 
name would ^^ confound the human relations,*' just as though 
incest had any thing to do with the names of individuals, and 
not the degree or nearness of blood relationship. No matter 
how remote the relation between parties having the same an- 
cestral name, and no matter if they be from distant provinces, 
and their ancestors have not known each other for hundreds 
or even thousands of years, they may not marry. This fact 
relating to the Chinese might be adduced to aid in giving an 
answer to the question, " ^V7lat is in a name .^" The same 
principle carried out at the West would result in different 
families of " Smiths" never intermarrying, however remote 
their blood relationship might be. 

It not unfrequently occurs that a rich family, having only 
one daughter and no boys, desires to obtain a son-in-law who 
shall be willing to marry the girl and live in the family as son. 
Sometimes a notice is seen posted up, stating the desire of a 
certain man to find a son-in-law and heir who will come and 
live with him, perhaps stating the age and qualifications of an 
acceptable person. In such a case, the parents of those who 
have a son whose qualifications might warrant such an appli- 
cation, and whom they would be willing to allow to marry on 
such terms, are expected to make application by a gobetween, 
when the matter would be considered by the rich man. Some- 
times the rich man makes application by a gobetween to the 
parents of a young man whose reputation he is pleased with, 
and who perhaps may bo a recent graduate, his name standing 
near the head of the list of successful competitors of the first 
or second literary degree. Occasionally such graduates, if un- 
engaged and unmarried, (Jftiso a notice of the fact of their be- 
ing unengaged in marriage and their place of residence to be 
patted up directly under their names, as they appear on the 
list when placarded in public, just after the successful compet- 




100 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

iters have been fixed upon by the examining officials. The ob- 
ject of thus publishing the fact is to afford an opportunity for 
those rich families who have unmarried and unengaged daugh- 
ters to select them for their sons-in-law, hoping to receive a 
large sum of money besides a wife. He who agrees to go and 
live with his father-in-law, sometimes agrees also, at the time 
of marriage, to take the ancestral name of his father-in-law, and 
regard himself as Ms son. Only a poor family will allow a 
talented and literary son to ignore his own family name in this 
way. On the day of marriage he is carried in a black sedan, 
decked off with some pieces of scarlet silk on the outside, to 
the residence of his father-in-law, where he and his bride per- 
form the worship of " heaven and earth," of the ancestral tab- 
lets of her family, etc., in accordance with the established cus- 
toms relating to wedding occasions. While, perhaps, there is 
not any disgrace in obtaining a wife in this way, and becom- 
ing the heir of a rich family at the loss of one's ancestral name, 
the opportunity is not coveted as much as the opportunity of 
obtaining a wife and a valuable present in money from a rich 
man with the privilege of retaining one's own ancestral name. 
Some wealthy men are glad to bestow one of their daughters, 
and a valuable dowry besides, on graduates, for the honor of 
having a literary son-in-law who has the prospect of becoming 
a mandarin. 

Widows are obliged by custom to wear a white, black, or 
blue skirt, when they wear any skirt at all. They are not al- 
lowed to dress in a red and gaudy skirt, as though they were 
married and their husbands were living. Hence the expres- 
sion, " marrying the wearer of a white akirt^'^ applied to a man 
who marries a widow. Poor families sometimes arrange to 
marry one of their sons to a widow, when they feel themselves 
unable to procure a girl of good character on account of the 
necessary expense incurred in such a case. The expense at- 
tendant on marrying a widow is comparatively small. It is 
considered a disgrace to a family for one of its sons to marry 
a widow, no matter how intelligen^nteresting, and handsome 
she may be, as well as a disgraceifu or shameful step on the 
part of the widow to consent to marry again. No rich and 
fashionable family ever marries a son to a widow. A widow 
is not allowed to ride in a red bridal chair en route from her 




MABBYING, WHILE IN MOURNING, UNLAWFUL. 101 

residence to the residence of her intended husband. She must 
employ a common black-covered chair, borne by two men. 
Many families, which have a widow connected with them, are 
exceedingly unwilling that she should marry again on account 
of the dishonor which such a procedure would bring upon 
them, and especially upon the memory of her deceased hus- 
band. Grenerally his relatives, if in good circumstances, prefer 
to assbt in her support, or support her entirely, than that she 
should marry the second time. Sometimes, however, when 
they are unkind to her, she tries to marry clandestinely, if she 
is assured they will not give their consent and assistance in 
finding her a second husband. A case occurred in this city in 
the fall of 1861, when a widow, who was not kindly treated by 
her husband^s family, by practicing deceit succeeded in en- 
gaging herself to a man without their knowledge, by the means 
of a gobetween. It was arranged that she should start from 
the gobetween's house. She was on the point of starting for 
her intended^s house, when her deceased husband's friends, 
having ascertained the facts, came in time to prevent her sec- 
ond marriage, after a spirited struggle with the friends of the 
man to whom she had clandestinely engaged herself. This 
engagement was regarded as improper and unlawful, because 
the elders of her deceased husband's family were not cogni- 
zant of it nor a party to it. 

For a person to enter the married state under three years, 
or, more correctly speaking, under twenty-seven months, sub- 
sequent to the death of one of his or her parents, is contrary 
to the law of the empire. Still, in point of fact, some marry 
inside of a hundred days afler the death of a parent, in case 
that there is an urgent need of the services of a female in the 
family. Custoffiy wJiich in China is oftentimes more carefully 
followed than the letter of tlie law, now allows in this place 
such marrying in the case of the common people, although 
the law, strictly interpreted, forbids it. Such a marriage in 
an officer's family would not be tolerated. No one prosecutes 
if the common people marry within a hundred days after the 
death of one of the parents of the parties. Tlie badges of 
mourning, which would otherwise be worn by the family, are 
left off for several days subsequent to the wedding-day, dur- 
ing the festivities, after which they are resume<l and worn for 
the prescribed period. 




102 BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

OfCentimes, when the girl dies before the wedding-day ar- 
rives, especially if nearly or quite of marriageable age, a cns- 
tom called ^^ asking for her shoes'^ is observed. Her affianced 
husband goes in person to the residence of her parents, and with 
weeping approaches the coffin which contains her corpse. He 
soon after demands a pair of the shoes which she has recently 
worn. These he carries home, having three lighted sticks of 
incense in his hands, as he walks or is borne through the streets. 
At the corners of the streets, en route to his residence, should 
there be any, he calls out her name, and invites her to follow. 
On arriving at his own home he informs her of the fact. The 
incense he brought with him ho puts in a censer. He arranges 
a table in a convenient room, and places behind it a chair. The 
shoes of the deceased girl are placed on the chair, or under it. 
The censer containing the incense brought from her parents' 
residence is placed upon the table, together with a pair of 
lighted candles. Here he causes incense to be burned for two 
years, when a tablet to her memory is placed in the niche con- 
taining the ancestral tablets of his family. By all this he ac- 
knowledges her as his wife. Should he not take this course, 
on the death of the girl whom he expected to marry, her par- 
ents and family friends would be displeased. 

When a girl has been betrothed, but her affianced dies be- 
fore their marriage, the term *'*' broken thread^^ is used in 
speaking of the matter, just as though the feet of the parties 
had been tied together by a thread, which had become broken. 
Such language refers to the popular story already related con- 
cerning the fated betrothment of parties in marriage. Her 
parents often endeavor to keep the fact of the death of her be- 
trothed from coming to her knowledge. They are generally 
very anxious to engage her as soon as convenient to another 
person, concealing the circumstance of her former betrothal, 
if possible, from the family among whose sons they hope to 
find a husband for her. Should it become known, many fami- 
lies would decline to engage one of their boys to her, the 
death of her betrothed being regarded as an inauspicious 
event. Some families, however, would not strongly object to 
engaging a son to her, though they might expect to obtain 
her for a daughter-in-law on more favorable terms than they 
would a girl of the same age who had never been engaged. 




9 

BRIDAL PROCESSION IN MOURNING. 108 

It oflentimes occui'8 that the parents do not succeed in 
keeping from their daughter a knowledge of the fact that her 
affianced husband has died. Most girls, in such a case, are 
quite willing to be engaged in marriage to another person, 
and therefore make no opposition or trouble ; but some stead- 
fastly oppose any rebetrothal, and demand to be permitted to 
go over to the family of her affianced husband's parents, and 
live with them as his widow. If she can not be persuaded to 
desbt from this plan, the families concerned are obliged to 
make the necessary preparations, providing furniture and 
clothing as though her husband was living. When every 
thing is ready, the procession of men, carrying her outfit of 
furniture, etc., proceeds through the streets to the residence 
of the decease^. The furniture, however, must have white 
strips of paper pasted on it, or it must bo bound around with 
pieces of white cloth. The bridal procession is also difierent 
from what it would have been had her affianced been living. 
Though she is preceded by a band of music, and by men bear- 
ing lanterns, and though she is dressed in red clothing, she 
may not ride in a red bridal chair with four bearers, but in a 
common black or blue sedan. On arriving at the house where 
the parents of her betrothed reside, she proceeds to worship 
heaven and earth, and the ancestral tablets of his family. She 
then puts on mourning apparel, and goes to the side of his 
coffin, where she weeps and laments. Afterward, for the cus- 
tomary period, she performs the usual ceremonies connected 
with mourning for a deceased husband on the part of a duti- 
ful wife, and continues to live in the family, secluding herself 
from her friends and from the public, waiting on his parents 
as their daughter-in-law until her own death. Such is the 
theory. Few, it is said, carry it out nowadays in all its 
strictness. For a girl to adopt the resolution to live as a 
widow in the family of her affianced husband is not desired 
by either family concerned. It is particularly undesirable to 
the parents of her betrothed, on account of the trouble it 
makes them, and also on account of the anxiety they constant- 
ly 8uffi>r lest she should not continue steadfast in her purpose. 
Should she change her mind, and not live up to her original 
intention, after having taken the preliminary steps, she would 
bring much shame and dishonor on them. It would also be a 




104 BETBOTHAL AKD MARRIAGE. 

soarce of great mortification to her own family and friends 
should she afterward desire to marry, or become wearied with 
her secluded life. Should she, however, live a life of chastity 
and of filial obedience to her parents-in-law, and die at an ad- 
vanced age with an unsullied reputation, it would reflect great 
honor on herself and the families most intimately concerned. 
She would be sure of having an honorary portal erected to 
her memory, by especial permission of the emperor, and in 
part at his expense, should her virtue and her filial piety be 
represented to him by the proper mandarins. 

Among the poor the fulfillment of the marriage contract is 
frequently delayed longer than is agreeable to one of the fam- 
ilies interested. In such a case, this family send a gobetween 
and a trusty friend to urge the dilatory party to agree to the 
selection of a lucky day for the wedding. Sometimes delay is 
excused on the ground of inability to raise the needed amount 
of ready money to defray the extra expenses. When such a 
reason is given on the part of the family of the affianced girl, 
it is oftentimes only a pretense for obtaining a larger sum of 
money iVom the other family than would be given unless de- 
lay after delay was made. In case that one party is poor and 
the other wealthy, such an excuse, if given by the poor party, 
in reply to those who are deputed by the wealthy party, very 
frequently results in the sending of a considerable additional 
present of money to hasten the marriage. 

Sometimes, when every other recourse is exhausted, and the 
family of the groom come to the conclusion that the other fam- 
ily have no good excuse for delaying the marriage, the expe- 
dient of stealing aicay the affianced girl from her parents^ 
residence^ and carrying her to the residence of the other par- 
ty, is adopted as an effectual way of settling the question. It 
is necessary, in stealing away the girl, that her betrothed hus- 
band should go in person and do it. He provides a common 
black sedan, and has it ready near the house where the girl 
resides, or is expected to pass along, or is visiting. He takes 
along with him a party of relatives or trusty friends to aid 
liira, if help is needed. Some one of the company carries 
along a common bed-blanket. On finding the girl, she is 
seized by her betrothed, and the blanket thrown over her 
head. She is taken to the sedan in waiting, placed inside. 




KIDNAPPING HIS AFFIANCED BRIDE. 105 

and carried off directly to bis home. En route he places him- 
8elf directly before the door of the sedan, and his friends fol- 
low near by. No one dares interfere or hinder in any way 
the affianced husband and his party in thus kidnapping and 
carrying off his betrothed wife, except her parents and broth- 
ers, and they seldom make any determined resistance. This 
intended course on the part of him who has a right to her, if 
it should become known to her relatives, oftentimes brings 
them immediately to terms, and they agree to allow the de- 
parture of the bride in the usual reputable way, seated in a 
red bridal sedan, and preceded by a band of music, etc. 

When the girl is kidnapped, and carried to her betrothed 
husband^s home, the ceremonies usual on wedding occasions 
are observed there on her arrival, as nearly as the circum- 
stances of the case admit. Should the kidnapping party make 
a mistake, and seize another girl and carry her off, the leader 
would be liable to prosecution before the magistrate, and to 
suffer heavily for his blunder. Such a mistake does occasion- 
ally occur, mainly owing to the fact that the features of the 
affianced bride are unknown to any member of the other 
party. 

A case occurred in this city not long since, when the bride- 
groom endeavored to gain possession of his bride by kidnap- 
ping her. But it happened that the girl was not at home 
when the kidnapping party arrived, and she could not be 
found. In this case, the family to which he belonged had be- 
come very poor since the betrothment ; when the parties were 
betrothed both families were rich. It seemed very hard to 
the parents of the giri that she should marry a poor man, and 
have they delayed, under various pretenses, the fixing of a for- 
tunate day for the wedding, and endeavored to have the en- 
gagement canceled, and the betrothal papers belonging to the 
families exchanged ; but when they saw by the effort to kid- 
nap and carry her off that the bridegroom was unwilling to 
give her up, and that there was danger of the affair becoming 
known to the magistrate, they consented to her marriage in 
the usual way. 

When a marriage contract is broken up by the consent of 
both parties, a writing is sometimes given by the affianced hus- 
band to the other family, called a ^^ retirement from the mar- 

E 2 




106 BETROTHAL AND HABRIAGE. 

riagey^ and the original documents relating to betrothal in the 
possession of the parties are exchanged. The marriage con- 
tract is comparatively seldom canceled. Generally it is done, 
if done at all, on the girl giving what is considered good rea- 
son for the step. Poverty, or illness, o^ ugliness are never re- 
garded as good reasons. But a reputation for lewd habits, on 
her part, seems to justify the giving up of the match by the 
faibily of her affianced husband, although the same character 
on his part is not considered a sufficient reason for demanding 
a release from the marriage contract by the parents of the girl. 
Immorality on his pai*t is not taken into the account, but her 
character must be above suspicion. If one party becomes lep- 
rous before marriage, or is greatly physically deformed, or is 
a notorious thief, the other party may demand a release from 
the engagement. Generally the party which insists, even for 
good reasons, for such a release, has to pay a comparatively 
large bonus in order to get it from the other party. The rich- 
er the party, the greater the sum demanded. Sometimes sim- 
ply the exchange of the copies of the marriage contract is 
made. This is regarded usually as all that is absolutely nec- 
essary to release the parties, as the contract in writing given 
by each party to the other at the time of betrothal is the main 
legal proof of engagement. It is considered disgraceful either 
to give or to receive a written release. 

There are seven considerations which will justify a husband 
in giving a bill of divorcement after marriage and putting 
away his wife, according to the ancient standards. There 
does not seem to be any valid ground, according to Chinese 
views and customs, why a wife, or her friends in her behalf, 
should demand a separation from him. The power is all in his 
hands. Should she desire to get a bill of divorcement from 
him, because he treats her unkindly, or because he is a thief or 
an adulterer, the attempt would be in vain. There does not 
appear to be any lawful reason to justify a wife in leaving her 
husband. The idea of a wife divorcing her husband for adul- 
tery, or for any reason whatever, is one which excites a smile, 
as absurd and preposterous, whenever mentioned to the Chi- 
nese. Duty with her is simply and solely to follow her hus- 
band, submit to his caprices, and the domination of his par- 
ents, until death releases her, or she is sold by him, or divorced 




MARRYINO THE WIFE OF A LIVING MAN. 107 

for some of the seven reasons which justify a divorcement. 
These are : 1. Unfilial conduct (toward the parents of her hus- 
band). 2. Adultery. 8. Jealousy. 4. Loquacity. 5. Theft. 6. 
Virulent disease (as leprosy). 7. Barrenness. It is said that 
at the present time theiast two reasons are not regarded among 
educated men as sufficient grounds for a divorce. There are 
three things, any one of which, except in the most aggravated 
cases, will prevent, according to theory, a divorce of the wife 
by her husband. These are, first, if she has lived with him, 
and served his father and his mother until they are both dead ; 
second, if he has become rich and honored with office under 
the government since their marriage, at the time of marriage 
he being poor and not in the enjoyment of official tmst; third, 
if she has no home to which she can go, her parents and broth- 
ers being dead. 

It is not necessary for the husband, in giving a bill of di- 
vorcement to his wife, to do it in the presence of an officer of 
the government, as witness, in order to make it legal. He 
does it on his own authority and in his own name. It is often 
written in the presence of her parents and in their house. 
Very few divorces occur in China. 

Very poor families are frequently unable to find reputable 
girls who are willing to maiTy their sons; and sometimes 
they are quite unable to be at the expense of buying a wife, 
and of marrying her according to the established customs. 
They therefore sometimes plan to purchase the wife of a liv- 
ing man, who may desire, for some reason which, to his mind, 
is a justification for the act, to sell her. The price paid for 
such a wife is much less than it would be necessary to pay for 
a girl, or for a female slave ; and the expense of the marriage 
festivities would also be much less than in case of marrying a 
reputable girl. The purchaser of a living man's wife must re- 
ceive from him a bill of sale, stating that she is sold by him to 
be the wife of the buyer. The woman must be willing to bo 
thus disposed of. She is conveyed in a common black sedan 
to her purchaser's residence, where she and he worship heaven 
and earth, and the ancestral tablets of his family, and each 
other, in much the usual manner as on other wedding occa- 
nons, and his friends and relatives are invited to a feast. Thu 
custom of marrying the wife of a living man is not very 




108 BETROTHAL AND HABBIA6E. 

common. It is dono oftener in country places than in cities. 
What a state of society which will tolerate such a custom ! 

Rich married men have often one or more concubines living 
in their families. Doubtless many a man who is childless 
marries a second or inferior wife, with the consent and appro- 
bation of his first or principal wife, and while she is living, 
who would not have taken such a step in other circumstances. 
The desire of having male children to perpetuate one's name, 
and to burn incense before one's tablet afler death, has an im- 
mense influence over the mind of the Chinese. Generally 
speaking, only female slaves are willing to become a second 
or inferior wife in the family of a man whose principal or first 
wife is living; respectable families are adverse to allowing 
their daughters to form such connections. The inferior wife 
must submit to the principal wife, and obey her as her mis- 
tress, and must kneel down before her, and worship her, on 
arriving at her future home.' She does not worship heaven 
and earth, together with her husband, on the morning of her 
marriage, as is invariably the custom on the part of the prin- 
cipal wife, but she is required to worship the ancestral tablets 
of the family. 

Two singular customs which relate particularly to widows 
who do not marry again will be now described. 

Some widows, on the death of their husbands, resolve not 
to survive them, and proceed to take their own lives. Chi- 
nese sutteeism diflers from India sutteeism in that it is never 
performed by burning. The manner of doing it is various. 
Some take opium, and lie down and die by the side of the 
corpse of their husband. Others commit suicide by starving 
themselves to death, or by drowning themselves, or by taking 
poison. Another method sometimes practiced in this place is 
by hanging themselves in public, near or in their own houses, 
having given notice to that eflect, so that those who desire 
may be present and behold the act. 

The real reasons which induce some widows to practict» 
sutteeism are various. Some, doubtless, are moved in a great 
degree to do it by a devoted attachment to the dead ; others 
by the extreme poverty of their families, and the diflUculty of 
earning an honest and respectable living; others by the fact 
or the prospect of unkind treatment on the part of their hus- 




CHINESE SUTTEEISM BY HANGING. 109 

band's relatives. Occasionally, when poor, the brothers of 
her deceased husband advise or insist that the young widow 
shall marry again. In one of the cases which occurred here 
about a year ago, the inciting cause why the young widow 
decided to kill herself by public hanging was that a brother- 
in-law insisted that she should marry a second husband. On 
her refusing to do it, he insinuated that the only way for her 
to gain a livelihood, in the indigent circamstances of the fam- 
ily, was by her becoming a prostitute. This unkindness fnad- 
dened her, and she resolved to commit suicide. She appoint- 
ed a certain time for its accomplishment. On the morning 
of the day appointed she visited a certain temple, erected to 
hold the tablets and perpetuate the memory of ^^ virtuous and 
filial'' widows, and located near the south gate of the city. 
She was borne to and fro through the streets, seated in a se- 
dan carried by four men, dressed in gaudy clothing, and hold- 
ing in her hand a bouquet of freSh flowers. After burning in- 
cense and candles before the tablets in this temple, accompa- 
nied with the usual kneelings and bowings, she returned home, 
and in the afternoon took her life, in the presence of an im- 
mense crowd of spectators. On such occasions it is the prac- 
tice to have a platform erected in the house of the widow, or 
in the street before it. At the appointed time she ascends the 
platform, and sprinkles some water around on the four sides 
of it. She then scatters several kinds of grain around in the 
different directions. These are done as omens of plenty and 
of prosperity in her family. After being seated in a chair on 
the platform, she is generally approached by her own broth- 
ers, and by her husband's brothers, who worship her. This is 
oftentimes accompanied by the offering to her of tea or of 
wine. When every thing is ready, she steps upon a stool, and, 
taking hold of the rope, which is securely fastened to a high 
portion of the platform or the roof of the house, adjusts it 
about her own neck. She then kicks the stool away from 
under her, and thus becomes her own murderer. 

Formerly certain officers of government, if the current re- 
port is trustworthy, used to sanction the self-destruction of 
widows, not only by their presence on the occasion, but also 
by their taking a part in the worship. Once, it is related, a 
woman, after the honors had been paid to her, instead of 




110 BBTBOTHAL AND MARRIAGB. 

mounting the stool, and adjusting the rope about her neck, 
and hanging herself, according to the understanding, suddenly 
recollected that she had forgotten to feed her hogs, and has- 
tened away, promising to be back shortly, which promise she 
omitted to keep. Since that hoax no mandarin has been pres- 
ent at a suttee at this place. A public suicide by a widow al- 
ways attracts a large crowd of spectators. Public sentiment 
encourages the practice enough to make it considered honor- 
able and meritorious, though not to make it a very frequent 
occurrence. The brothers and near relatives of a widow who 
thus immolates herself soon after the decease of her husband 
regard it as an honor to the family, and not unfrequently feel 
gratified in having themselves referred to as her brothers or 
relatives. 

Sometimes a girl who has been betrothed to a man who 
dies before the marriage-day resolves to take her own life by 
public hanging, in view of his death, rather than be engaged 
again in marriage, or live unmarried. If she can not be per- 
suaded to take a different course, she is allowed to appoint a 
day for her suicide, visits the temple referred to above, if not 
too far distant, mounts the platform provided at the house of 
her affianced husband, and launches herself into eternity, in 
much the same manner as do those widows who resolve not 
to survive the loss of their husbands. The coffin of the girl, 
in such cases, is interred by the side of the coffin of her be- 
trothed, and at the same time. 

The widows and the girls who take their lives as above de- 
scribed may have their names recorded on the large general 
tablets erected in the temple which they visit before they 
commit suicide, or they may have a separate tablet, made in 
the usual shape, but as costly as they please to make it, placed 
among the other tablets at the temple, on the payment of a 
sum of money for the current expanses of the institution, or 
as a present to its keepers or managers. The sum demanded 
is graduated by the social standing or the wealth of the fami- 
ly of the person whoso memory the tablet is designed to com- 
memorate. Incense and candles are burned in this temple on 
the first and the fifteenth of each Chinese month, in honor of 
these " virtuous and filial" women, by some of the gentry of 
the city ; and it is the official duty of certain mandarins, either 




PORTALS IN HONOR OF VIRTUOUS WIDOWS. Ill 

in person or by deputy, to offer oblations at this temple in the 
spring and autumn of each year. 

Honorary tablets or portals are sometimes erected to the 
memory of virtuous widows who have obeyed with filial devo- 
tion the parents of their husbands. The tablets are made out 
of fine black stone or of common granite, and are generally 
erected by the side of a public street. They consist generally 
of four posts of stone, more or less elaborately carved, fifteen 
or twenty feet high, with several horizontal cross-pieces, also 
of stone. Inscriptions are sometimes graven upon the upright 




nOKOtAET 8T0>K rOBTAL T(> THE MUIOET Of VIETUOl'8 AMI FILIAL WIDOWS. 

and cross pieces in praise of chastity and filial piety. Near 
the top of the tablet are always found two Chinese characters, 
denoting that it is erected by " imperial permission." Such 
I>ortals cost from a few tens of dollars to several hundred, ac- 
cording to their size, material, and finish. The chaste and 
filial widow, after arriving at fifty years of age, while living, 
may have a tablet erected in her honor, provided she has in- 
fluential and wealthy friends. After making the necessary 
application to the emperor, through the proper mandarins, and 
after obtaining his special consent, a small sum of money ac- 
companies the permission of the emperor, paid out of the im- 
perial treasury, to aid in the expense of erecting the tablet. 




112 BETROTHAL AND MAKRIAGB. 

Her friends and relatives are expected to supply what is need- 
ed for its erection, over and above the donation from the em- 
peror. When completed, some mandarin of low rank goes to 
worship before it ; and, if finished during the lifetime of the 
widow whose memory and example it is designed to com- 
memorate, it is customary for her to go and worship it. The 
widows and the chaste unmarried girls who commit sutteeism 
by suicide on the death of their husbands or their affianced 
husbands are also entitled, in accordance with the customs of 
the country, to an honorary tablet, if they have friends or re- 
lations who are willing and able to procure the imperial sanc- 
tion, and to supplement the imperial present with the neces- 
sary amount of money to build it. In fact, however, few who 
are entitled to a tablet do have one erected to their memory. 
After a description of customs, not simply ridiculous and 
nonsensical, but manifestly injurious to society, as well as su- 
perstitious and sinful, I feel very often like making some im- 
provement or reflections. I am sure, however, that at the end 
of this chapter it is quite unnecessary for me to take up time 
and space in doing so ; for if the careful reader has not had 
his attention arrested and his indignation aroused while read- 
ing an account of some of these customs,, it would be useless 
for me to attempt to say any thing now, designed to point out 
their horrible character and their pernicious influence. 




ADOPTION VERSUS GRAFTING. 113 



CHAPTER IV. 

MABBIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

StipergtiHouM Customs observed by Married Womenj or relating to them • Adopt- 
ing a Child versHs Grafting. — Examining the Flower-Tree. — Changing the 
Flower-rase. — Asking "Mother" for the loan of a Shoe. — Begging a 
Flower from "Mother." — Ceremony of the middle Period. — Propitiating 
certain two female Demons. — Methods of ascertaining the Sex of unborn 
Children. — Difficult Labor. — Use of Puppets. — Turning around the 
'^Strait Charm.** — Ceremony in case an apparently lifeless Child is bom. 
— Singular or Superstitious Customs relating to Children the first year of 
their lives : Washing the C^ild before image of " Mother.** — Binding its 
Wrists. — Warding off unfavorable Influences into theTrowsers. — ^Thanks- 
giring to "Mother.** — Shaving the Child*8 head when one Month old. — 
Child pits on a Chair when four Months old. — Ceremony of "Grasping 
Things'* when one Year old. — Singulir or Suf>€r8titious Customs relating to 
Children after they are one Year old: "Burning Paper to 'Mother.*** — 
Cutting the Cords of the Feet. — "Passing through the Door.** — Letting 
the "Peach** grow. — Burning mock-Money monthly. — Worshiping "Moth- 
er'* on her Birthday. — Praising the Measure in the eighth Month. — Ori- 
gin of the Custom. — Worship of Confucins annually by Teacher and Pu- 
pils. — Worship of Confucius " on entering School." — " Going out of Child- 
liood." — Becoming of Age. — Prosecution of unfilial Children before Mag- 
istrates. — Punishment of a Parricide. 

Superstitious Customs observed by Married Women or rela- 
ting to them. 

Married life in China, unless attended with male children, 
is seldom happy. The wife is exceedingly anxious to present 
her husband with sons, who will perpetuate his name and burn 
incense before his tablet after his death. In case of real or 
supposed barrenness, various superstitious expedients are oft- 
en resorted to by her, in order to facilitate the conception of 
children; to ascertain the sex of an unborn babe; and, as the 
time approaches, to render confinement safe and expeditious. 

When the woman has been married for a long time, but re- 
mains childless, the following expedient is sometimes adopted. 
A girl belonging to another family is ado|)ted by the childless 
wonum as her own child. She is brought up in her family, 




114 MARRIED LIFE AlTD CHILDREN. 

and professedly treated as though she was her own child. 
The Chinese have the idea that, in some way, this course will 
aid the woman in the conception of children. The train of 
thought is explained thus : The woman is represented by a 
tree in the unseen world. Whether she will have children or 
not, and what will be their number and sex, is indicated by 
the condition of the tree which represents her, whether it has 
flowers or not ; and if it has flowers, what is their number and 
color. If the tree has red flowers, she will have girls ; if white 
flowers, she will have boys. If the flowers be of difierent col- 
ors, some white and some red, she will have boys and girls ; 
if no flowers at all, the poor women will not naturally have 
any children at all. But as, in this world, men graft one tree 
by a shoot of another tree, and thus have the desired fruit, the 
Chinese have devised the astute expedient of adojyting a child 
into a childless family, hoping that thus there will in due time 
be flowers on the flowerless tree in the spirit land, represent- 
ing the barren wife ; and if so, she will be sure to have chil- 
dren, in consequence of this wonderful art of grafting. 

If married women did not have considerable faith in the 
efficacy of this method of rendering a barren wife fruitful, no 
family would bo at the trouble and expense of adopting a girl, 
rearing her, and marrying her offl Very poor families do not 
resort to this cure of barrenness, on account of their poverty. 

Sometimes the childless married woman, in her anxiety to 
pry into the future, hires a sorceress, who pretends to be able 
to see into the other world, to examine the flower-tree which 
represents her, and to report to her its condition, whether it is 
flourishing or whether it is diseased, what flowers it has, and 
whether the red or white flowers will probably blossom first. 
Many very intelligent and respectable women believe what the 
sorceress tells them on this subject, paying them money very 
readily for their information. 

When, after a marriage of several years, no children are 
born to the wife, or none but girls, or the children die in in- 
fancy, the woman, fearing she shall never have any male chil- 
dren, or any that will live to mature age, not unfrequently en- 
gages a sorcerer or sorceress to perform the ceremony called 
changing the floxcer-vase. Bearing children is fancied to have 
great resemblance in some respects to rearing flowers in flow- 




ASKING " mother" FOE THE LOAN OF A SHOE. 115 

er-vases : much depends on the earth used in the vases. If no 
child is born, or if it dies, it is supposed to be like producing 
sickly flowers, the earth being had. The person employed, as 
some explain, is expected to go to the other world, and change 
the earth in the vase which has the flower-tree which repre- 
sents the particular wife in question, or, as it is briefly called, 
change her flower-vase; or she hires some one to make a 
quantity of artificial paper flowers, which are then placed in 
two paper flower-vases. The sorceress or sorcerer first per- 
forms certain ceremonies over these vases, and then changes 
their relative positions. Afterward, the paper vases and pa- 
per flowers are burned. Changing their relative positions is 
thought to indicate something like changing the earth in the 
flower-vases in the unseen world. The object of all this is to 
obtain male and healthy children. 

Every year, between the 11th and the 15th of the first and 
of the eighth Chinese months, several of the most popular tem- 
ples devoted to the worship of a goddess of children, commonly 
called "Jl/b/Aer," are frequented by married but childless wom- 
en, for the purpose of procuring one of a kind of shoo belong- 
ing to her. They are not such as are worn on her own feet. 
The shoes sought for are generally those which have been pre- 
sented to the goddess as a thank-oflering. Those who come 
for a shoo bum incense and candles before the image of 
"Mother," and vow to render a thanksgiving if she will aid 
them in bearing a male child. The shoe is taken home, and 
placed in the niche or by the niche which holds the family im- 
age of the goddess, where it is worshiped in connection with 
"Mother," though not separately, on the Ist and 15th of each 
month, with the burning of incense, candles, and mock-money, 
and fresh flowers. Now this shoe, representing the goddess, 
is believed by a very large proportion of married women to be 
quite eflicacious in gaining the object sought. When the child 
thus prayed for is born, should such a fortunate event take 
place, the happy mother causes, according to her vow, two 
^hoes like the one obtained from the temple to be made. 
These two, and the original one, she returns to the temple 
with her thank-oflering, which consists generally in part of sev- 
eral plates of food. Some won>en get shoes from several dif- 
ferent temples, in their eagerness to have offspring. Should 




116 MARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

they become mothers after this, the goddess in each of these 
temples must be thanked— the one from whom the last shoe 
was obtained with the most oSerings. 

Some women, instead of asking for* a shoe of the goddess, 
ask for some of the flowers which she usually has in her hands, 
or in a flower-vase near by. The shoe is lent; the flower is 
given. On reaching home, the woman wears the flower thus 
obtained in the hair of her head, or it is placed in a flower- 
vase near by the niche which contains the household goddess 
'* Mother." No worship is paid to it. In case several difier- 
ent flowers are obtained at diflerent times from various tem- 
ples where " Mother" is worshiped, on the event of the birth 
of a child, the image of "Mother" in all these temples must 
be " thanked" with meats. Should the supplicant not become 
a mother, no thanksgiving would be expected by the goddess 
whose aid she has invoked. 

After she has gone about five months, the husband of the 
woman frequently returns thanks to the goddess " Mother," 
or some other divinity whom he pleases to worship on this oc- 
casion, and begs in the following manner a continuance of fa- 
vors. A table is arranged in some convenient place near the 
open heavens. On it are placed ten plates of meats, fish, fowl, 
rice, etc., a vase of flowers, five kinds of seeds or dried fruits, 
a lantern, three sticks of incense, two candles, and ten cups of 
wine. A priest now begins to recite his formulas. At the 
customai-y period of the performance, he remarks, in substance, 
as if addressing the divinity worshiped, "that such a roan has 
begotten by his wife a child for these five months. He now 
presents these oflc rings as an expression of his gratitude, and 
begs that she may be protected during the rest of her time in 
good health, and give birth to the child without detriment, on 
which event taking place he will present another thanksgiv- 
ing." 

Xear the end of her time, on a lucky day, a ceremony is per- 
formed in many families for the purpose of propitiating the 
good will, as some explain it, of two female demons, which are 
believed to be present with an intention to destroy the wom- 
an's life at the time of childbirth. Othei-s say that the object 
of this ceremony is to frighten and drive away these evil spir- 
its, so that they shall not be present and injure the women. 




SINGULAR SUPERSTITIOUS CUSTOMS. 117 

A table is spread with eight or ten plates of food, with incense, 
candles, flowers, and roock-money. A priest recites the clas- 
sics appropriate to the occasion. Ten or twenty pieces of 
a kind of grass cut up about an inch long, and several like- 
nesses of the crab, cat out of common paper, are put into the 
oenser and burned. Or sometimes several live crabs, after be- 
ing used in the ceremony, are taken and turned out into the 
street. It is thought that these will greatly aid in frightening 
these bad spirits or propitiate their good will, so that they will 
not dare to come into the room at the time of childbirth. The 
reason why crabs are used is that the name of one of these de- 
mons sounds like the name for '^ craV in the dialect of this 
place. 

After the conclusion of this ceremony, the meats and other 
eatables are removed, and another quantity of incense, candles, 
seeds, wine, and a cup of clear water, are brought and placed 
on the table, but wo meats. The ruler of the Bloody Pond in 
hell, and various evil spirits in the other world, are then in- 
vited by the priest to come and receive the worship of the 
husband of the woman. The priest performs certain cere- 
monies ; the object is to gain the good will and protection of 
the ruler of the Bloody Pond in regard to the approaching 
case of childbirth. A part of the ashes of the incense used at 
this time is enveloped in a piece of red paper, and suspended 
near the censer belonging to the family, where it remains un- 
til thirty days after childbirth ; it is then taken and put into 
the censer and burned during a thanksgiving ceremony made 
in honor of the ruler of the Bloody Pond, Twice every day, 
previous to the period of childbirth, one stick of incense and 
one pair of candles are burned before this parcel. 

If a woman wishes to know the sex of her unborn babe, the 
following method of ascertaining the interesting fact is some- 
times adopted. She reckons up the number of her age in 
years, and the number of the month, day, and hour she was 
bom. This sum is added to the number of the day of the 
month and of the hour of the day when she determines to 
make the calculation. She then, remembering the sum total, 
commences to count the images or pictures of the thirty-six 
female assistants of the goddess called " Mother," until she ar- 
rives at the one which corresponds to the sum total of her cal- 




118 MARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

calations ; if this sum exceeds thirty-six, she keeps on counting 
the images or pictures of the assistants until she arrives at the 
number she has in her mind. Now it is supposed that, bj ob- 
serving the sex of the child in the arms of the assistant god- 
dess which corresponds to the sum total of her calculations, 
she may know the sex of her unborn child ! If the assist- 
ant should happen to have no child at all in her arms, the 
woman comes to the conclusion either that the goddess will 
not inform her, or that her child will be stillborn, or will not 
live. 

Some married women adopt the above method in order to 
ascertain whether they will have children, which fact is said 
to be disclosed by the assistant goddess having or not having 
a child in her arms. Other women simply count the images 
or the pictures referred to until they come to the number 
which corresponds to their own age, and judge from this pic- 
ture or image in regard to the sex of their unborn child, or in 
regard to their having or not having children. 

It is not an uncommon occurrence for a childless married 
woman, before she thus counts up the images or pictures of 
the assistant goddesses, to make a vow to *^ Mother" that if she 
will bestow a male child upon her she will be at the expense 
of repairing and decorating that one of the assistant's images 
which should happen to correspond to the sum of her age, con- 
sidering the year, month, day, and hour as above described. 
Subsequently, should she bear a boy, she employs a workman, 
who gilds and paints the lucky image. 

The images of the thirty-six assistant goddesses referred to 
are found in temples devoted to the worship of " Mother." 
Sometimes representations of these goddesses are painted upon 
the walls of such temples. Their pictures are also found on a 
kind of paper-hanging used by priests in performing a singu- 
lar ceremony called ^^ passing through the door^^^ for the ben- 
efit of children. 

In case of very difficult labor, it is thought that a certain 
evil-disposed spirit prevents the child from coming into the 
world. A priest is therefore invited to come and perform a 
ceremony, the object of which is to drive away this bad spirit 
Three cups of wine, a plate having five kinds of seeds oriruits, 
with incense and candles, are arranged on a table, and mook- 




suPEBsnnoNs to facilitate childbieth. 119 

money of several kinds is provided to be burned at the proper 
time. After the priest has mumbled over some unintelligible 
jargon or formula, attended with thumping on the table, for 
about half an hour, he produces three yellow paper charms, 
two or three inches wide, and a foot or more long ; one of 
these is to be stuck over the door of the bedroom or on the 
bed-curtain, one is to be worn on the head of the sick woman, 
and the ashes of the other, mixed with hot water, is to be giv- 
en to her to drink. 

If the child is not bom after waiting a longer time than 
usoal, and much pain is suffered by the woman, and it is fear- 
ed that her life is endangered, sometimes some of her family or 
friends obtain a kind of puppet-show^ among which is a puppet 
of the goddess " Mother." These puppets are made to play 
and dance, back and forth, near the door of the sick woman's 
room several times ; they are then taken away. Sometimes 
the puppet representing " Mother" is placed on the body of 
the woman, and then made to dance or walk downward three 
times. This method of obtaining relief is believed to be very 
efficacious by many of this people. In case of a successful de- 
livery after its use, it is the duty of the family, some time witli- 
m a month, to be at the expense of a theatrical performance at 
the house or at the neighboring temple in honor of the chief 
of the puppets. Sometimes only one puppet is used, that of 
the one called " Mother." 

When much pain is suffered, and a delivery is not effected, 
the following artifice is resorted to by some families : two 
sheets of a kind of mock-money — one representing gold and 
the other silver — three sticks of incense, and two candles, are 
taken and lighted before the image of an assistant god called 
Str^ght Charm, which may be always found standing just be- 
fore the image of the " Great Kit^g*'' in the neighboring tem- 
ple, with its face toward the " Great King." After lighting 
these tokens of respect, the offerer turns around this image, so 
that its face will be turned toward the outside or directly away 
from the " Great King." The object of this is to procure the 
aid of this assistant god to turn around the infant and cause 
a speedy birth, it being supposed that the reason why a deliv- 
ery has not already taken place is because the child is in a 
wrong position. If the child is bom subsequently, the family 




120 HARBIED LIFS AND CHILDREN. 

is under obligations, some time during an interval of thirty 
days, to present a thank-offering of meats, fish, rice, incense, 
and candles before and in honor of the idol. The image iH 
turned around to its proper position just as soon as possible 
after the child has been born into the world. 

Sometimes it is believed that the child at the time of its 
birth is exposed to some very unpropitious influences, which, 
unless prevented in due time, will certainly cause its death. 
It will not eat nor cry, and it appears lifeless. Consequently 
a performance, very similar in most respects to one which has 
been already described, is transacted in some families, with the 
following distinguishing difference in regard to the use of the 
three yellow charms furnished by the priest. 

After the conclusion of the ceremony, one of these charms is 
hung up on the curtain of the bed where the sick woman lies, 
the second is doubled up into a three^omcred shape, and then 
put on the cap of the child on the third day after its birth, or 
it is worn about its body for an indefinite period. The other 
is burned, and its ashes are put into the water with which th« 
child is washed on the third day after birth, as a kind of puri- 
fication. 

{lingular or superstitious Customs relating to Children ob- 
served the first Year of their Lives. 

On the third day after the birth of a child, the midwife 
washes it for the first time. This washing is performed be- 
fore an image of the Goddess of Children, already referred to, 
called Mother. This divinity is supposed to have the care €uid 
oversight of children of both sexes until they are sixteen years 
old. About the time of washing the child, an oblation of five 
or eight plates of meats, fruits, etc., is made to the goddess, 
arranged on a table before her picture or image, with wine, 
incense, candles, and fresh flowers. This is regarded as a 
thank-offering for the aid of "Mother" thus far. The food is 
subsequently taken away and eaten by the members of the 
family. On this day friends and relations take occasion to 
send various kinds of food, as fowls, vermicelli, and cakes, to 
the family, in token of their congratulations. 

Immediately after being washed, the important custom of 
binding its wrists is observed. In regard to this, there seems 




BINDINQ THE WRISTS OF CHILDREN. 121 

to be great diversity of practice. Some families simply bind 
around each wrist one or more ancient cash of a particular 
kind by means of a red cotton cord, where the cash remains 
for eleven days or longer. Others only put around each 
wrist a loose red string, as though it were a ring. 

Other families provide several silver toys, as a miniature 
seal, a small bell, drum, pestle, and mallet. One or more of 
each kind of these toys, with an ancient cash, are bound 
around each wrist. The string used is generally about two 
feet long, each end being put about the wrists, leaving about 
one foot of loose string between them. These things are 
worn till the child is fourteen days old, when some families 
remove them. Sometimes, however, a ring of red cord or of 
red tape, with or without some cash or toy, is worn for several 
months, or even for a year. When soiled, the tape or cord is 
exchanged for another clean one. 

The ancient cash is used as a charm, in order to keep away 
evil spirits or influences. The silver toys are designed as 
omens of good relating to the future life of the child, as it 
were expressing the desire that it may become wealthy and 
honored^ The wrists are thus tied together, in order to pre- 
vent the child becoming naughty and disobedient. It is 
thought that such a tying of the wrists will tend to keep the 
child from being troublesome in aflcr life, and from meddling 
with what does not belong to it, just as though he or she was 
bound. When boys and girls are naughty and troublesome, 
they are often asked if their mammas did not bind their 
teristsf implying that if their wrists had been properly bound 
when an infant, they would have been restrained from miscon- 
duct in subsequent life. 

On the third day after the birth of the babe, two Chinese 
characters are written on a piece of red paper, which, having 
been carefully folded around a parcel inclosing certain articles, 
is hung up on a nail or peg on the outside of the door of its 
mother^s room by means of a red string tied around it. The 
design of this paper and contents is to ward off unfavorable 
if\fluences from the child ; and persons who are not very inti- 
mate with the family, on seeing it, understand it to constitute 
a request that they should not enter the room. Some say 
tliat^only those persons who were present at the washing of 

V<y- I.— F 




122 MARRTKD LIFE AlTD CHILDREN. 

the babe are allowed to enter the bedroom as long as tbe red 
paper is attached to the door, which is for eleven days. 

This parcel contains two of a certain fruit full of seed used 
in the manufacture of a material employed somewhat like soi^ 
in washing, some pith of a rush used for wicking, two chop- 
sticks, one or two onions, two pieces of charcoal, some cat's 
hair, and some dog's hair. A pair of the trowsers of the 
child's father are put upon the frame of the bedstead, in such 
a way that the waist shall hang downward, or be lower than 
the legs. On the trowsers is stuck a piece of red paper, hav- 
ing four words written upon it, intimating that all unfavoror 
bU influences are to go into tlie trowsers instead of aiflicting 
the babe. The hair in the package, on the outside of the bed- 
room door, is to keep the noises which may be made for eleven 
days by the dogs and cats in the vicinity from frightening the 
babe. The coal is to aid in making it hardy and vigorous. 
The onions are to cause it to be quick-witted and intelligent. 
The pith is explained as contributing to make it fortunate or 
successful in life. The two fruits are to aid it in being cleanly 
and neat. It is believed that if persons come into the bed- 
room for the space of eleven days, while the parcel remains 
on the door, who ought not to come into it, the child will as- 
suredly have white sores on its gums, and that it will be sick- 
ly and difficult to rear. 

On the fourteenth day after the child's birth the parcel is 
taken away from the bedroom door, and the trowsers are re- 
moved from the frame of the bedstead. Most families have 
on this occasion a kind of thank-offering to ^'Mother" for her 
assistance in protecting and preserving the babe, consisting of 
meats, fruits, and vegetables, spread before her image, which 
is kept in the bedroom. Such a thanksgiving, however, is not 
made to "Mother" in case of the death of the child previous to 
the fourteenth day. 

When it is one month old, mother and child, according to 
theory, leave the bedroom for the first time after her confine- 
ment. On this day occurs another important ceremony, that of 
shaving the child^s head for the first time, either by a barber or 
by one of the family. Some are careful to have it done before 
an image of " Mother" if it is a g^irl, and before the ancestral 
family tablets if it is a boy, incense and candles being lighted 




8HAVIK6 THE CHILD'S HEAD. 



123 




aiiAviKO A child's ukad wqsn one month old. 



in front of tbe image ^ 
and the tablets. A 
thank-offering is also 
presented to the god- 
dess on this occasion. 
Relations and inti- 
mate friends are in- 
Titedtoafeast. They 
often come to witness 
the shaving of the 
child's head. Those 
who come most bring 
with them presents 
of money or silver rings, vermicelli or fowls, etc. In case of 
its being the first-bom, Tanist priests are oflen invited to per- 
form the ceremony, called " passing through the door," for the 
benefit of the babe. The maternal grandmother of the child 
is always expected to bring or send presents of clothing or 
food on this day. Among these articles there are usually 
abont twenty painted duck's eggs, and a quantity of soft 
sweet cakes. * On the upper side of each of these are stamped 
or painted several pictures of the flower of the apricot, using 
several colors ; white is not allowed, as that is the symbolical 
color of mourning. The pictures on the duck eggs are repre- 
sentations of children, flowers, and animals, in bright gaudy 
colors. The maternal grandmother is usually invited to a 
feast on this day. If belonging to the upper class of society, 
she seldom accepts the invitation, sending her presents by a 
servant. The day is one of joy and festivity, and among the 
rich it is observed with considerable show and expense, espe- 
cially if it celebrates the shaving of the head of the first-born 
son. 

About this time the child's parents return their acknowl- 
edgements of the kindness of friends and relatives, who sent 
presents on the third day afler the child's birth and at the end 
of a month, by sending some presents back to them. These 
presents consist usually of small round bread<ake8 or biscuits^ 
which have been split open, and into which have been put 
small slices of boiled pork, making, in fact, a kind of sandwich. 
The number of snoh cakes presented to a family varies from 




124 



MABRIED LIF£ AND CHILDREN. 



ten to a hundred, depending much on the pecuniary circum- 
stances of the party making the present, and having some pro- 
portion to the quantity or value of the articles previously re- 
ceived. 

When the child is four months old, ^' Mother" is again 
thanked; relatives and friends are again invited to a feast, 
who bring or send presents of money or food. As at the end 
of a month, so now the maternal grandmother or her present, 
if she does not come in person, occupies a prominent position. 
If the circumstances of her family allow her to do so, she 
makes expensive presents of food and clothing, and a kind of 
chair^ sometimes painted red, together with a quantity of mo- 
lasses candy. The various articles of food are presented as an 
oblation before " Mother." The happy father, or the paternal 
grandfather or grandmother, bows down before the goddess, 
and begs that the child may be good-natured and easy to take 
care of, that it may grow fast, that it may sleep well at night, 
that it may be wide awake in the daytime, that it may not be 
given to crying, and that it may be kept in good health. The 

edibles are subsequently feast- 
ed on by the family and invited 
guests, having been previously 
presented before the ancestral 
table. 

It b not usual to allow a child 
to sit in a chair until the day it 
is four months old. At a suita- 
ble time during this day, the soft 
molasses candy provided by its 
maternal grandmother is taken, 
and put in the seat of the chair 
on rollers. The child is then put 
the chair so as to sit down 
on this candy, which sticks it to the chair for the time being. 
This is done in order that it may learn to sit in the chair, and 
not require to be carried very much in the arms of the nurse 
or mother. This chair is often prettily painted and gilded, 
and has various playthings attached to it. Before this ^y the 
child has been carefully prevented from tasting animal food. 
On this occasion such food is given to it — that is, some of lihe 




OBXLD BITTllfO ON A OHAIB WIUBf VOUm 
MOSTTBB OUX 




CBLBBRATINQ A CHILD'S SECOND BIRTHDAY. 125 

meats presented before ^^ Mother" and the tablets. After this, 
anunal food is occasionally given to it to cat. 

On the anniversary of the child's birthday another thank- 
offering is presented to ^' Mother," and other presents of food 
and of clodiing are received from the maternal grandmother. 
If it be a boy, among other articles of clothing are a pair of 
boy's shoes and a cap ; if a girl, besides clothing are wristlets 
and head ornaments. The provisions for the thank-offering 
are in theory provided by the maternal grandmother of the 
child; should she be unable to furnish all that is needed on 
the occasion, the balance is procured at the expense of her 
0on4n-law, the father of the child, though every thing professes 
to be provided by the delighted grandmamma. 

Before the feast on this occasion, a large bamboo sieve, 
snob as farmers use in winnowing grain, is placed on a table 
before the ancestral tablets of the family, where incense and 
candles are already burning. On this are laid a set of money- 
scales, a pair of shears, a foot-measure, a brass mirror, pencil, 
ink, paper, and ink-slab, one or two books, the abacus, a silver 
or a gold ornament or im- 
plement, and fruits, etc. 
The child, dressed in the 
new garments just present- 
ed, is placed upon the sieve 
in the midst of the articles 
upon it. The object note 
is to 9ee what it wiU first 
take hold of and play iciVi, 
The moment is one of great 
interest to the parents and 
assembled friends. It is 
said that the article or ar- 
ticles the child first takes 
up indicate its future em- 
ployment, character, or condition in the world. If the child 
be a boy, and he takes a book or an implement connected with 
literature, as pen or ink, it is surmised that he will become a 
distinguished scholar ; if he seizes the money-scales, or the 
silver or gold instrument or ornament, that he will become 
fkiODus for his wealth and for his talents in making money. 




QKABPINO 1*LA\TIIIN«.H W IIKN ONK YiCAK i>I.Il. 




126 



MARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 



In the Sung dynasty, a certain lad, on the day when he was 
one year old, while seated on the sieve, first seized hold of two 
miniature military weapons in one hand, and in the other two 
vessels like those used in sacrificial ceremonies on some state 
occasions. After a few moments he laid these articles down 
and took up a seal. After this he paid no attention to the 
other playthings before him. Now mark the result : this lad 
became a Chancdlor of the Empire I People nowadays often 
speak of these and similar incidents when celebrating the first 
anniversary of the birth of their children by the side of the 
sieve in front of this ancestral tablet. 

On all the occasions which have been described or which 
remain to be described, when incense and candles are burned 
before the image of the goddess or before the ancestral tab- 
lets with special reference to a child, the child is taken there^ 
tf weUy and made to worship in a certain manner by moving 
its hands up and down a few times. The child is taught from 
its earliest infancy to worship idols and the tablets of its an- 
cestors. Sometimes, however, instead of its hands being moved 
up and down, the child, held in the hands of some one, is it- 
self moved up and down before the object worshiped, which 
is reckoned the same as makincr it move its hands in worship. 



.>^ 




ODLp TO WOMOr. 




^ CUTTING THE CJORDS OF THE FEET. 127 

Smgtdar or Superstitious Customs relating to Children ob- 
served usualfy after they are o?ie Year old. 

The customs which have been described are usually ob^ 
served in this place during the first year of a child's life. 
What remain now to be mentioned, generally speaking, be- 
long to a later period. They are usually observed in the 
same manner, if observed at all, whether the child is a boy or 
a girl. For convenience sake, the pronoun of the masculine 
gender will be used in describing them. 

On the birthday of children, every year, until they are six- 
teen years old, unless the ceremony of ^^ passing through the 
door" is performed, many parents present offerings of food, be- 
fore the idol of " Mother." This is called " burning paper to 
Mother^'* and is designed as a thanksgiving for her pasS^ favors. 
Usually no priests are employed. Some families have the 
custom of " passing through the door" and of " burning paper 
to Mother" both observed in their houses on the birthdays of 
their children, should there be any special occasion for them 
on account of their health. 

It is the custom in many families, when a child is just be- 
ginning to walk alone, for a member of the family to take a 
large knife, often such as is used in the kitchen to cut up veg- 
etables, and, approaching him from behind, as he is toddling 
along, put it between his legs with the edge downward, and 
then bring it toward the floor, as if in the act of cutting some- 
thing. This is called " cutting the cords of his feetP The 
motion is repeated two or three times. Sometimes it is not 
put between his legs, but is passed down toward the ground 
two or three times right behind him, while he is walking along. 
This is done in order to facilitate his learning to walk. It is 
supposed to be of great use in keeping the lad from stumbling 
and falling down. 

The ceremony oi^^ passing through the door*^ sustains a very 
important relation to the welfare of children, according to the 
sentiment and practice of many Chinese. Some families have 
it performed regularly every year ; others every second year, 
as in the first and third ; others every third year, as the third 
and sixth, and so on, until the child is sixteen years old, or the 
oeremony of ^^ going out of childhood'*^ is observed. Some- 




128 



HARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 



times, when a child is sickly, " the door is passed through'* 
once or twice per month, or several times in the coarse of the 




PAMINO TUSOUOa TUB DOOB. 



year, according to the condition of the child and the will and 
ability of the parents. Probably there are few families here 
which do not have this ceremony performed more or less fre- 
quently between the third day after the birth of a child and 
the period when it is supposed to pass out of the control of 
" Mother." Sometimes it is performed in consequence of the 
decision of a fortune-teller for the benefit of a child. 
A day is usually spent in " passing through the door" and 




^ PASSING THROUGH THE DOOR. 129 

its attendant ceremonies. Several priests of the Tauist sect 
(never any of the Baddhist sect) come to the residence of the 
lad's parents in the morning, before or after breakfast/ accord- 
ing to agreement, and first arrange an altar, made out of tables 
placed one upon another. On the uppermost of the tables 
they place censers, candlesticks, and various images of their 
gods. Behind the altar they suspend three paper-hangings, 
upon which are painted several tens of goddesses, among 
whom that of '^ Mother" occupies a conspicuous position. In 
a convenient part of the room is placed a table, having upon it 
five, eight, or ten plates of meats^.vegetables, fruits, and cakes. 
After every thing is properly arranged, one of the priests rings 
a bell while chanting his formulas, another beats a drum, an- 
other strikes his cymbals together, etc. The grand object of 
this is to invite certain goddesses to be present, which is sup- 
posed to be done when their names and places of residence 
baare been repeated in the accustomed manner. The celebra- 
ted female divinities who are honored as midwives or " moth- 
ers," and who are believed to be particularly concerned in the 
rearing of children, or who originally lived in the surrounding 
country, are invited to be present. 

At the proper time, usually in the afternoon, these goddesses 
are invited to partake of a feast, which has been arranged on 
a table for their entertainment. Besides eight or ten kinds 
of food, there are also provided a wash-bowl of hot water, and 
a towel, a fan, and cosmetics and artificial flowers for the es- 
pecial use of the female divinities in making their toilet before 
partaking of the feast. The priests ring a bell, beat a drum, 
and clap their cymbals, reciting their liturgies for an indefinite 
time, which constitutes an invitation for these goddesses to 
partake of the collation. 

Some time during the afternoon a table is placed in the 
front part of the room, " before the heavens,''^ as its relative 
position is called, and on it is put a common rice measure, 
having various articles in it, and seven little piles of rice are 
arranged on the table in the position of the seven stars which 
make up the Dipper in the constellation of the Great Bear. 
On each of these piles of rice is placed a kind of lamp. In- 
cense, candles, and lamps are all lighted up, and three priests, 
one standing in front of the table and the other two at its 

F2 




180 ICABBIED LIFE AKD CHILDBEN. i 

ends, perform the ceremony of " worshiping the meamre^^ in 
the usual manner. 

The " dfoor" is finally passed through in the middle of the 
afternoon or near sundown. This door is made out of bam- 
boo, covered with red and white paper, and is some seven feet 
high by two and a half or three feet wide, costing perhaps 
twelve or fifleen cents. The furniture in the room is so ar- 
ranged that the priests and the party which passes through 
this door can go around and around without doubling on their 
track. Sometimes a table is placed near the centre of the 
room, and an open space is left on all sides of it. One of the 
priests — who wears a fancy-colored skirt, and has on his head 
a curiously-shaped head-dress — takes in one hand a small bell, 
or a sword having small bells fastened to the handle, and in 
the other a horn, and commences reciting formulas or incanta- 
tions in front of this door, which is often at this time standing 
near the centre of the room. The priest, thus dressed, person- 
ates " Mother" in the act of performing magic spells for the 
purpose of saving children from evil spirits and unhealthy and 
malignant influences. The paterfamilias, or, if absent or de- 
ceased, some one in his stead, calls the children of the family 
together. He takes the one which can not walk or which is 
sick in his arms, and the other children, if any, each take a sin- 
gle stick of lighted incense in their hands. The priest after a 
while blows his horn, and advances slowly through the door. 
He is followed by the paterfamilias or his representative, and 
all the children of the family, who thus pass through the door. 
All the other priests are at this time doing something to aid, 
as beating the drum and clapping their cymbals. The head 
priest brandishes the sword in the air, or in its place he some- 
dmes flourishes a whip made in the shape of a snake, as though 
he was striking an invisible object. 

The door is then taken and placed at one of the four comers 
of the room, and the priest, father, and children again pass 
through it in a similar manner. It is then successively placed 
at each of the other comers, and again in the centre, where it 
is respectively passed through by the priest and his followers. 
Soon after this the door is hacked in pieces, and its parts set 
on fire and burned in the open court of the house, or in the 
street in front of the house where the ceremony is performed. 




FEEDING THE HUNGRY SPIRITS. 131 

While perfonning this ceremony, a small wooden image, a 
foot high, more or less, is invariably used to represent the 
child for whose special benefit it is celebrated. When first 
performed for any child, a new one is obtained to represent it ; 
and when not used, it is carefully preserved. Oflentimes it is 
placed by the side of Mother's*' image in the bedroom. The 
name of the child is usually written on the back of the image. 
In case the child dies before sixteen years of age, this image is 
placed in the coffin with its corpse, and buried with it. After 
the ceremony of ^^ going out ofchildhood^^ has been performed, 
H is often used as a plaything by the children of the family. 
In case the child is exceedingly sick, and may not be carried 
in person through the door, this image, with or without some 
of the clothing of the child placed on a platter, is taken and 
carried through the door, instead of the child, which amounts 
to the same thing as though the dhild itself was carried 
through. As above intimated, all the children of the family 
improve the opportunity to pass through the door, as well as 
the particular one for whose special benefit the ceremony is 
observed. Sometimes nephews and nieces, and several of the 
children of the near relatives of the family who happen to be 
present, also join the procession and pass through the door. 

The design of all this is to benefit the children, causing them 
to recover if sick or feeble, continuing them in health if well, 
and enabling them to arrive at a good old age. The perform- 
ance is oftentimes quite showy and imposing, at least in the 
estimation of the Chinese. The expense ranges from two to 
ten or twelve dollars for each celebration. Usually the priests 
are entertained with a part of the provisions used on the occa- 
rion. 

Some families, at the close of this ceremony, have a table 
spread with food for the hungry spirits in the lower regions, 
consisting of vegetable soup, rice, two or more plates of bis- 
cuit or bread-caikes, large and small, perhaps three plates of 
meats, mock-money and mock-clothing; incense and candles 
are also provided, and set on fire at the proper time. A priest 
is employed to ring his bell and chant his liturgy. Spirits in 
the lower regions are believed to have an important infiuence 
for good or for evil in the afiairs of this world, and many par- 
ents are quite solicitous to secure their friendship and kind of- 




132 MARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

fioes in behalf of their children. Hence such a presentation of 
food, clothing, and money after ^^ passing through the door,^^ 

Many parents, after the first shaving of the head of a child, 
when one month old, allow the hair to grow on a part of the 
top of the head, if a boy, in the shape and of the size of a small 
peach, until eight or ten years old, or even until sixteen years 
old ; if a girl, a patch of hair is often allowed to grow on one 
or both sides of the head. Many Chinese seem to be at a loss 
why the tuft is left. Some explain that which is left on the 
pate of a boy to be for a defense of the soft part of the skull. 
They all seem to regard it as an omen of good, or a kind of 
charm, and conducive to the health or welfare of the child. 

Sometimes neither the " peach" nor the cue is allowed to 
grow until the lad is some six or eight years old, the whole 
head being regularly shaven. The cause of this delay is some- 
times said to be the death of his father or mother when it was 
decided to let one or both of these grow. Sometimes, in the 
case of him who is the only son of his parents, and born long 
after their marriage, they vow to give him up to be the child 
of some idol or to be a Buddhist priest. They will not then 
let his hair grow on his pate until six or eight years old. 
Their object in making this vow, and in treating their dearly- 
beloved son in this way, is to procure good health and longev- 
ity to th^ lad. They apply various sorts of derogatory names 
or epithets to him, as ^^ Buddhist priest j''^ ^^beggar,^^ "r<^i/^,** 
^^dirty'^ imagining that he will thus be allowed to live, and that 
no evil spirit or influence will injure his health. By-and-by, 
when he seems to be established in health, they allow his hair 
to grow like other boys. All their apparent neglect and abuse 
are but an ind^x of their real affection for him, and are intend- 
ed to lead the evil spirits and malicious influences, which might 
otherwise be expected to molest or harm him, to pass him by 
as worthless and good for nothing. 

A singular custom, which derives its name from the fact 
that mock-nioneg is burned mofithlg^ is extensively practiced 
at this place in families which have few and sickly children. 
The Chinese believe that there is a god and goddess of the 
Bedstead, a goddess who rules over the Eaves of a house, and 
a goddess who presides over the Bedroom. Many families 
therefore bum mock-money, and incense, and candles, to the 




lODWIVES CELEBRATE THE BIRTHDAY OF "MOTHER." 133 

honor of this god and these goddesses, regularly on the first 
and fifteenth of every month. The children of the family at 
whose house this is done are made to kneel down near the 
places while the mock-money is burning, and one of the heads 
of the household call upon the god or the goddesses referred 
to to protect their children and make them grow fast, easy to 
nurse and take care of, have a good appetite for their rice, etc. 
It is expected that in this way the god and goddess of the bed- 
stead will be led to use their infiaence, and cause the children 
to lie down quietly and sleep soundly when their parents wish, 
whether by night or by day ; that the goddess of the eaves 
will keep them from stumbling or falling down on the stones 
usually to be found near or under the eaves of every house ; 
and that the goddess of the bedroom will make them tractable 
in nursing, and good-natured. 

The birthday of the goddess "Mother ' falls on the fifteenth 
day of the first month in the Chinese year. On that day she 
is universally worshiped by married women and by midwives, 
oftentimes with considerable expense and show. Many mar- 
ried women go to some of her temples at that time and im- 
plore her blessing. It is an cstablisliod custom at this place 
for a midwife to visit the families, if living sufficiently near her 
residence, where she has officiated within sixteen years, for 
the purpose of collecting contributions from them to aid her 
in worshiping " Mother." She expects a sum of money vary- 
ing from a few tens of cash to several hundreds, according to 
the wealth and social standing of the family, a couple of can- 
dles, a bundle of incense-sticks, several large sheets of mock- 
money, representing silver and gold, and some fresh flowers. 
Sometimes she receives only a present of money. Tlie can- 
dles, incense, and mock-money are professedly burnt before 
the image of " Mother" in her house, and the money is to be 
used in meeting the necessary expense of the ceremony of 
^^passing through the door^^'* for the especial benefit of the 
children whom she has helped into the world. She furnishes 
each family a kind of schedule, which is returned to her after 
having been filled up with the names and precise ages of the 
children in the family in which she has fulfilled the duties of a 
midwife. This document is burned at the proper time, during 
the performance o{^^ passing through the door^'* which is done 




184 MABBISD LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

at her expense, and in her own house, before the image of 
" Mother," which she worships. " Mother" is supposed in this 
manner to become acquainted with the express wishes of the 
midwife, and to be reminded of the importance of her kind of- 
fices in behalf of those children whose names are thus submit- 
ted to her inspection. 

On the fourteenth or fifteenth day of the eighth month, there 
is very frequently performed a ceremony called sometimes 
" worshiping the measure.^^ Although almost universally cele- 
brated in families having weak and sickly children, every year, 
the Chinese seem to have very often exceedingly indistinct 
ideas in regard to this custom. The expressions ^' southern 
measure" and '^ northern measure" occur frequently in their 
efforts to describe it. These two terms are explained as re- 
ferring to two stars, or collections of stars, one in the northern 
heavens, and the other in the southern heavens. When wor- 
shiped, they are most usually represented by their names be- 
ing written on paper when any emblem is needed. Pictures 
or images of them, when made, represent two grave old men. 
The " north measure" is supposed to be the god of longevity, 
and to regulate or fix the time of one^s deaths having the con- 
trol of the book in which such dates are recorded. The 
" south measure" is regarded as the god of oflScial emolument, 
or the god which regulates one's salaries and income during 
li/e. In other words, one is the divinity which rules over 
deathj and the other the divinity which rules over li/e. They 
are often worshiped on the birthdays of children, and of 
adults when sick. When worshiped about the middle of the 
eighth month, it is usually done for the benefit of children of 
the family sick or well, the object being to secure to them lon- 
gevity and plenty of money. 

The origin of this custom is traced by the Chinese them- 
selves to a certain historical incident, as follows : 

A long while ago, a certain lad, on going into the street one 
day, met an old man, who proved to be a celebrated fortune- 
teller named Euan-lo. He addressed the lad, saying, " Tou 
are a fine boy. What a pity that your life is to be so short" 
The lad at once asked him how long it was to be, and he told 
him that he was to die at the age of nineteen. This frightened 
the lad, who was already near that age, and he went home 




WORSHIPING THE MEASURE. 186 

oryuig, and told his moiher what he had heard. She, in tnrn, 
was made very sad also, but told the lad to go and inquire 
fiuther of the fortnne-teller. He did so, and was instructed 
to take a plate of preserved venison and a bottle of wine, and 
Darry them to the top of a certain mountain, where he would 
End two old men playing chess. He was told to place the 
venison and the wine down by them without saying a word, 
and then wait patiently until they had finished the game, when 
he might advance and make known his requests. The lad 
proceeded to do as he was instructed, and was 8urprised«to 
find two men there engaged in a game of chess. After he 
had silently placed the food and drink by them, they kept on 
playing until they had finished the game, without noticing the 
lad. They then seemed hungry, and began to eat of the pro- 
visions they saw by their side. After they had done eating 
and drinking, the lad advanced and told his story, weeping 
while talking, and besought them to save him from dying at 
80 early an age. They heard the lad, and then took out their 
records, and found, on examination, that his life was indeed 
nearly finished, according to the record. They, however, took 
a pen, and interpolated before the nineteen the Chinese figure 
for nine, thus making the record read ninety-nine. They then 
ordered the boy to return home and tell the old man he met 
in the street that he must not do in like manner again ; that 
the time appointed by Heaven was not to be divulged to mor- 
tals. The lad thanked those old gentlemen, who were no 
other than the *' north measure^^ and the " south measuri'* — 
went home, and narrated to his mother what had occurred. 

In worshiping the measure, the Chinese, instead of the 
dried venison, use a few small balls of a kind of Dutch cheese 
made of the milk of the domesticated buffalo. They also use 
candy made out of molasses in which hemp-seed has been 
mixed, some of the root of the lotus, vermicelli, several dishes 
of meats, fowl, and fish, seven bowls of pea-soup, ten cups of 
wine, and three cups of tea, arranged on a table. Some fami- 
lies do not use all of these articles. On the table also is placed 
a rice measure with a flaring top, half filled with rice. On the 
outside is a Chinese representation of the seven stars which 
make the Dipper. In it, at each of the four comers, is placed 
some utensil, viz., a case containing a set of money -scales, a 




136 MARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

foot-measure, a pair of shears, and a small metallic mirror. 
Besides these, ten chopsticks are arranged around the sides of 
the measure in a perpendicular position. It also contains one 
stick of incense, two candles, an oil lamp, and a small wooden 
image, being the representative of the child for whose benefit 
the ceremony is performed. 

A priest of the Tauist sect spends a short time by the side 
of the table, chanting his formularies adapted to the occasion, 
and then departs, to go through the same at some other house, 
as» very many families observe the same custom on this day 
for the welfare of their children. 

Some time during the spring, usually in the fourth month, 
according to established custom, schoolmasters invite their pu- 
pils to a feast, where they engage in the worship of Confucius. 
It is customary for pupils each to make a small present of mon- 
ey to their teachers at this time, which is appropriated, in part 
at least, toward defraying the expenses of the feast. As there 
is no image of Confucius for use on such occasions, a slip of 
red paper, of only a few inches in length, on which has been 
written in black ink an expression meaning " t?ie Teachery a 
pattern for 10,000 agea^'* is put up on the wall of the school- 
room. In front of this inscription is placed a table, having 
upon it a censer and a brace of candlesticks. When every 
thing is ready, the teacher, having first lighted and put in the 
censer three sticks of incense, and in the candlesticks a couple 
of candles, kneels down before the table, and, placing his hands 
on the floor, bows his head toward the earth slowly and rev- 
erently three times. He then arises, and one of his pupils takes 
his place before the table, and kneels down, making the same 
number of bowings in the same manner. Another pupil now 
takes the place, and performs the same ceremony ; and so on, 
till all have engaged in the worship of the sage. After this, 
the food which is to be consumed in the feast is placed on the 
table before the red paper inscription to Confucius, where it 
remains a short time. It is then removed to another table or 
tables, around which the teacher and his pupils gather and 
partake of it. Before the feast, the teacher usually presents to 
each one of his pupils a white paper fan, on which he some- 
times writes a quotation from the classics, or a favorite and 
popular stanza of poetry. Besides this, he provides a number 




PUPILS WOBSmP CONFUCIUS. 187 

of toys eqnal to the nmnber of his pupils, each representing a 
graduate of the first, second, or third literary degrees, which 
are distinguishable by the shape and color of their dresses. It 
it decided by the throwing of dice in what order the pupils 
afaall choose these toys. These toys are valued as an omen for 
good, or rather as an index of the success in study which each 
may hope to attain. It is often an interesting and exciting 
time among the members of a school. 

On a Chinese youth entering a school as pupil for the first 
time in any year, he is expected to bring with him two small 
candles, a few sticks of incense, and a small quantity of mock- 
money, which are to be lighted and consumed before a slip of 
paper having some title of Confucius written upon it, the pu- 
pil making the customary prostration, or bowing before it, aft- 
er these things have been lighted and while they are being 
consumed. This is called " entering school" or " worshiping 
the sage." One morning, some six years ago, a lad, dressed 
in his best clothes, marched into a free-school under the charge 
of a missionary, carrying, besides his books, three sticks of in- 
cense, two small candles, and a few sheets of mock-money, de- 
signed, in accordance with established usage, as an offering to 
the Chinese sage. It seemed that the teacher had neglected 
to inform his parents that in the Mission school the sage was 
not worshiped. The lad was quietly told that the articles he 
had brought would not be used, inasmuch as those who studied 
the books of Jesus did not bum incense in honor of Confucius. 

The ceremony called ^^ going o\U ofchildhoocV^ is perform- 
ed by many families when each of their children is sixteen 
years old or thereabouts. It is very nearly like the ceremony 
called " passing through the door," which has been described, 
except that it is generally much more imposing and showy 
than that ceremony, as it is usually performed. The theory 
entertained ia, that at sixteen years of age the boy emerges 
from boyhood into manhood, and the girl from girlhood into 
womanhood. From the time of the performance of this cere- 
mony, the goddess of children, "Mother," ceases to have the 
superintendence of the boy or the girl, and the individual comes 
under the government of the gods in general. The expression 
" thanking MotJier*^ is often used in speaking of this event, 
when she is thanked for her past care of the youth. 




188 MABRTKD LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

Some families delay the celebration of this custom for a year 
or two after, or have it performed earlier than the usual time, 
in case their children are expecting to marry soon afler or be- 
fore they are sixteen years old, making it come a short time 
antecedent to the marriage-day. Other families, in conse- 
quence of extreme poverty, or because their ancestors have 
not been in the habit of celebrating the ceremony, or for some 
other reasons, do not celebrate it at all on the arrival of their 
children at aduU age^ as the age of sixteen years may not im- 
properly be styled. The child becomes a man or woman at 
this time, or becomes of age. He or she, at the age of sixteen 
years, becomes amenable to punishment if guilty of crime. If 
guilty and convicted before this period, it is said, the culprit 
must be imprisoned until the proper age is reached, when pun- 
ishment may be legally inflicted. 

Let it not be understood, because one becomes of age or ar- 
rives at cuHuU age in China when sixteen years old, that he 
comes out from the legal control of his parents at this time. 
While his parents are alive, a son must continue to obey them. 
Such is the doctrine of the classics, the laws, and the customs 
of China. No matter how old, how educated, how wealthy — 
except he has become an officer of the government, and while 
he is serving the emperor — he must render prompt and implicit 
obedience to his father and mother. He may on no account 
disobey, or neglect, or. slight their wishes or their orders. 
After he has become an official, and is away from his paternal 
home in the service of the state, he is subject to the commands 
of the emperor. His parents can not then control him in any 
respect, though he must conform in every thing to the estab- 
lished customs of the empire in regard to his parents. The 
time never arrives when a man in a private station, while his 
parents are living, may engage in the pursuit he chooses, or 
may keep his earnings for himself, or spend them as he pleases, 
without their free consent and approval. His wages are given 
to them, and they can oblige him to do any thing or take any 
course they please, without asking his consent or caring for his 
preferences. Such is said to be law; but in fact and in prac- 
tice he is treated with some consideration, ofVen consulted, and 
his wishes frequently complied with. 

A daughter, after she is married, is not subject to her own 




PBOSECUnON FOR UNFILIAL CONDUCT LAWFUL. 189 

ptrents, but comes under the control of her hnsband's parents, 
if they are living. To them she is often little different from a 
slave. She may not resist, or oppose, or deride their wishes 
or commands, any more than she might resist, or oppose, or 
deride the wishes or commands of her own parents before her 
marriage. Very frequently she is treated by them with great 
cruelty. 

After the son has attained his sixteenth year, in case of the 
decease of his father, he generally manages the outKde affairs 
of the -family pretty much as he pleases, unless his mother 
should happen to be a strong-minded woman. The classic 
says the woman has three obeyings : 1st, aJie must obey her fa- 
ther (before her marrriage) ; 2d, she must obey her husband 
(after marriage) ; and, 3d, she must obey her son (after her hus- 
band's death), t. e., when he shall have arrived at mature age. 

The principle of a woman's obeying her son after the de- 
cease of her husband must not be understood as allowing him 
to abuse, or insult, or injure her. Neither would custom tol- 
erate nor the laws justify such unfilial conduct. 

In cases of extreme unfilial conduct, parents sometimes ac- 
cuse their children before the magistrate, and demand his of- 
ficial aid in controlling or punishing them ; but such instances 
are comparatively rare. Public sentiment is so strong against 
the individual who will not treat his parents with the custom- 
ary respect and obedience, and the want of filial piety is taught 
to be a crime of such enormity, that few Chinese are found 
who have the hardihood to lay themselves open to the dis- 
grace of a public prosecution. It is said that, should a parent 
iHiip his child to death for unfilial conduct, notice would sel- 
dom or never be taken of it in the shape of a prosecution of 
the parent before the magistrate ; only the maternal uncles of 
the disobedient lad or man would have a right to interfere in 
the case. When a parent brings his incorrigible son before 
the magistrate for filial impiety, and demands punishment to- 
be inflicted, the maternal uncles of the accused have a right 
to interfere or to be consulted, especially in case very severe 
punishment, as death, should be demanded by the indignant 
and dishonored parent. It is affirmed that no magistrate 
would dare to whip an unfilial child to death at the instiga- 
tion and demand of his parents without first consulting and 




140 HARRIED LIFE AND CHILDREN. 

obtaining the testimony or consent of his maternal ancles. 
They are required to bear witness to the character and the 
condact of their nephew who is under prosecution. The mag- 
istrate may exercise his prerogative of advising the parent in 
regard to the course to be pursued, as well as of exhorting the 
refractory son in regard to his duty ; but he may not set him- 
self firmly against carrying out the punishment demanded by 
the offended parent. If the parent requires his son to be pub- 
licly whi^^d by the command of the magistrate, the latter is 
obliged to order the infliction of the whipping. If the former 
demands a public exposure of his son in the wooden cangue, 
with the crime of not JUial written upon it, then the latter 
must cause the son to be thus punished for a specified time. 
If, afler these or similar slight punishments, the son remains 
undutiful and disobedient, and his parents demand it at the 
hands of the magistrate, the latter must, with the consent of 
the maternal uncles of the individual, cause him to be taken 
out to the high wall in front of the yamun, and have him there 
publicly whipped to death. 

If a son should murder his parent, cither father or mother, 
and bo convicted of the crime, he would not only be behead- 
ed, but his body would be mutilated by being cut into small 
pieces ; his house would be razed to the ground, and the earth 
under it would be dug up for several feet deep ; his neighbors 
living on the right and the left would bo severely punished ; 
hia principal teacher would suffer capital punishment ; the dis- 
trict magistrate of the place would be deprived of his oflice 
and disgraced ; the prefect, the governor of the province, and 
the viceroy would all be degraded three degrees in rank. All 
this is done and suffered to mark the enormity of the crime 
of a parricide. 

What is said above in regard to the treatment of an un- 
filial child, and the punishment inflicted upon a parricide, and 
those who are supposed or believed to be connected with him, 
is in accordance with the common sayings and opinions of the 
people on the subject. 

Having accompanied the Chinese child along the journey 
of life from the third day of his earthly existence until ho has 
emerged into manhood, and having observed and attempted 
briefly to describe some eighteen or twenty of the singular or 




INFLUENCE OF EARLY WRONG TRAINING. 141 

niperstitioDS customs which are believed to relate to bis well- 
beings let us DOW dismiss the subject, assured that, if be re- 
mains a heathen, he will, in the main, practice the same cus- 
toms in his family, and bring up his children in a similar 
manner. 

The mind of the thoughtful reader, born and educated in a 
Christian land, can not but be pervaded by a deep feeling of 
gratitude that he was not bom and brought up in China, sub- 
ject to the superstitious influences to which the Chinese from 
their earliest infancy are subjected by their parents, in accord- 
ance with established customs. 

. No wonder that the Chinese are exceedingly attached to 
the peculiar superstitious customs of their country, when their 
earliest recollections are so intimately associated with the per- 
formance of these customs for their special benefit, and with 
the excitements and the feastings which invariably attend the 
performance of them. 




142 SUPSBSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 



CHAPTER V. 

SUPKBSTinOUS TBEATMENT OF DISEASE. 

MiucelhsMous SvperttUiomt to atre the Side: Death owing to the ** Beckoning 
of Hearen." — Propitiating the ** Destroying God."— Expelling deadly In- 
fluences. — Inviting the Mandate of the '^Arrow.*' — Attributing the Dit- 
ease to some angry God. — Ascribing the Sickness to the Enmity of a de- 
ceased Person. — Inriting the God of Medicine to risit the Sick. — Getting 
ten Men to become Security. — EndeaToring to bring back the Spirit of the 
Sick.— Following the Directions of a Book of Charms. — ^Burning a repro- 
sentative paper Image of the Sick. — Ascending a Ladder of Enires. — 
TTtey implort the Aid ofcertoM Divinities in curing Small-pox ondMeaskt: 
Worship of the Goddess of Small-pox. — Steaming Balls of Teast.— Beating 
a Drum or Gong when it Thunders. — Roasting black Beans. — ^Presents in- 
dicating the Wish that the Scabs of the Small-pox may fall off.— Thank-of- 
fering to the Goddess of Small-pox. — Worship of the Goddess of Measles. 
— They employ novel Methods for curing and preventing Cholera and other 
epidemic Diseases : Epidemics under control of the Five Rulers. — Idol Pro- 
cessions. — Tall white Devil and short black Devil. — Paper Boats carried 
in Procession, and burnt at Water's Ekige. — An unusual kind of Idol Pro- 
cession to expel unhealthy Influences. — They engage in Idol Processions at 
a Token of Gratitude /or the Recovery of their Ptarents from Sickness, or to 
promote their Longevity: Making Vows before popular Idols. — Kneeling 
down in the Streets before the Idol in Procession. — ^Wearing Cangnes and 
Cuffs. — Dressing in red Coau. — Carrying a Stick of lighted Incense. — 
Ceremony before the Great King. 

Miscellaneous Superstitions to cure the Sick, 
When the Chinese are sick they oftentimes have recourse 
to some god or goddess which they suppose has the control 
of the particular disease with which they are taken. They 
bum incense before the image, and implore a speedy recovery. 
If they should recover, the credit is given to the divinity wor- 
shiped, and an offering of meats or vegetables is made with 
more or less pomp, and at great or small expense, according 
to the standing of the family, and the nature of the vow made 
at the time of invoking the aid of the god or goddess. 

If the person dies, the divinity worshiped is not regarded 
as to blame, but the thank-oflfering which would have been 
rendered in case of recovery is withheld. The death is simply 




PROPITIATING THE DESTROYING GOD. 148 

accounted for by saying it is in accordance with the ^^ reckon- 
ing of Heaven^ They do not seem to regard recovery from 
illness to be at all connected with the " reckoning ofJSeaven.^^ 
If one dies it is becaase Heaven wills it, or it is according to 
the decrees of fate. If one recovers it is because the god or 
goddess which controls the disease wills recovery. It is all to 
be credited to his or her power and benevolence. They prac- 
tically ignore the great fact that health and sickness, life and 
death, are always in accordance with the reckoning of Heaven 
— are all controlled and governed by the Supreme Disposer of 
events. 

The Chinese, notwithstanding their submission to the reck- 
oning of Heaven, or their belief in the power of the gods and 
goddesses they have invented and established, make great 
use of medicine when they are sick. After all, the result is 
ascribed to Heaven if unpropitious and death ensues, or to the 
gods if health returns and the sick man recovers. They seem 
to act and feel as though Heaven were able only to cause one's 
death, and that only the gods had the power to rebuke disease 
and restore to health. 

They try to propitiate a certain destructive divinity, — 
When the members of a family are sick one after the other, 
the sickness is very often attributed to the evil agency of a 
god called the *^ destroying god,'' which is believed to cause 
diseases in families. The manner in which the Chinese some- 
times speak of this subject would lead one to suppose that 
they imagine there are mysterious and injurious influences ex- 
isting between and among the members of a family, as from 
the father toward his son, or the husband toward his wife, 
etc., very frequently resulting in illness. Some families which 
are afflicted with repeated and inexplicable sickness, having 
first made a solemn vow to have a ceremony performed, the 
object of which is to beg or bribe the god to dissipate or de- 
stroy these influences, proceed to have it done as soon as the 
health of their sick ones will admit. They employ several 
priests belonging to the Tauist sect. The ceremony lasts, ac- 
cording to the option of the families wno employ the priests, 
from one day and one night to three days and three nights, 
according to the amount of money they determine to expend 
on the oooasion. They erect a temporary altar out of common 




144 supsBsnnous tbeatkent of disease 

tables. On this are arranged various portable images of gods, 
candlesticks, censers, and implements used in the ceremony. 
Oftentimes a large amount of meats and vegetables is also 
offered. The priests chant their liturgy or formularies, ring 
their bells, and march in concert around the altar. The merit 
of their performances is all supposed to go to the benefit of 
the sick, and it is hoped that the ^^ destroying^' demon will be 
prevailed upon to extirpate the baneful influences under his 
control, letting the sick not only get well, but keep well. 

Hiey endeavor to expel various deadly influences proceeding 
from evil spirits, — Should any one who has had general good 
health be suddenly and mysteriously taken wuth dizziness in 
hb head, pain in his eyes, or with inability to use his hands or 
feet as usual, his illness is not unfrequently ascribed to the in- 
fluence emanating from some one of seventy-two malignant 
spirits or gods. Immediate measures must be taken to coun- 
teract or expel this evil influence. A table is placed in the 
lightest part of the room in w hich the sick man is. On it are 
arranged three cups of wine, a platter having on it ^yq kinds 
of fruit, and a censer and a pair of candlesticks. A quantity 
of mock-money is also procured, ready for burning. A Tauist 
priest is hired to recite the proper formulas, in order to secure 
the expelling of this malignant influence from the sick man. 
Sometimes he invokes the aid of a certain headless demon in 
this important work. The priest provides himself with a small 
bell, which he rings while he repeats his formulas ; and with 
a bowl of water, which he sprinkles or snaps with his fingers 
on the articles offered, and on the sick person. lie has also a 
bundle of various kinds of paper charms ready for use when 
needed, and a small stick of wood, with which ho strikes the 
table at intervals during the recitation of his formulas. The 
incense and candles are burning all this while, and at the prop- 
er time he sets the mock-money on fire. About the close of 
the performance he produces three paper charms, one of which 
is to be stuck up over the door of the room, another is to bo 
worn on the person of the sick, if it be a man, or on her head, 
if it be a woman ; ancTthe third is to be burnt, and its ashes, 
mingled with hot water, are to be drank by the sick one. 
Sometimes one of these charms is suspended on the curtain of 
the bed on which the afflicted person sleeps, according to the 




SINGULAB USE OF AN ARROW. 145 

directions of the officiating priest. He is snppoded to know 
which of the different methods of using the charms should be 
practiced in any given case. In case the priest is successful in 
expelling the malignant influence at an early period, medicine 
is rarely used in restoring the disabled individual to health. 
When the evil influence is removed, the person will soon re- 
gain his usual degree of health, as a matter of course. 

JTiey invite the mandate of the ^^ arroto^^ from a powerful 
god, — When an important member of a family is taken very 
ill, and the disease does not yield to medicine or nursing, it is 
often affirmed to be caused by an evil spirit or influence, only 
subject to the great gods. A member of the family — as wife, 
child, or brother — goes with disheveled hair, and wearing a 
white garment around the waist or over the shoulders, to the 
temple of oi\f of the principal idols worshiped in the city, and 
beats the drum, which notifies the god that there is an urgent 
need of his kind offices. Sometimes the individual carries a 
stick of lighted incense in his hands, weeping and kneeling 
down in the streets every short distance. This indicates the 
greatest distress and danger. On reaching the idol's pres- 
ence, he hastily lights incense and candles before the god, and 
proceeds to state, in a kneeling position, the circumstances of 
the family of the sick person, and the importance of his imme- 
diate recovery to health, as having several small children, or 
as having aged parents dependent on him for support. The 
applicant begs an arrow-like utensil, less than two feet long, on 
which is sometimes written a single word, " command." This 
arrow is taken home, and placed in an upright position on the 
centre of a table, or it is suspended over it, or it is put in a 
frame prepared for its reception, or in the censer used by the 
&mily of the sick man. It is then worshiped, and incense and 
candles are burnt daily before it in its honor, until the sick 
[>erson recovers or dies. Should he recover, a thank-offering, 
consisting of meats, etc., is prepared by the family, and pre- 
sented before tlie image of the god on the occasion of return- 
ing the " arrow" to the temple from which it was obtained. 

If the " arrow" is ineffectual, and the sick person dies, it 
roust be returned to the temple where it belongs, accompanied 
with a simple oflTering of mock-money, incense, and candles. 
These are not to be regarded as a M^rwAr-offering, but onlv as 

Vol. I.-G 




146 suPEBSTinous treatment of disease. 

tokens of respect, without which the divinity would be of- 
fended. 

This " arrow" is regarded as the warrant or command of 
the god invoked for the departure of the evil spirit, or the ex- 
pulsion of the wicked influences which are supposed to infect 
the sick person, and constitute the main cause of his illness. 

The sick person's illness is sometimes attributed to the spir- 
it of his or her former wife or husband (that is, in a previous 
state of existence), which, afler long search, has finally suc- 
ceeded in finding its partner. The sick person sometimes de- 
clares this to be the fact, or rather the mouth of the sick is 
used by the spirit to mako the disclosure. In such a case, 
some one of the family makes a vow to have performed a cer- 
tain ceremony, the object of which is to " ferry over" the wan- 
dering spirit ; or they employ a magician to perform a certain 
other ceremony for the relief of the sick, by " catching^^ the 
spirit which possesses or disturbs him. If such a procedure 
does not result favorably, a resort is finally had to some popu- 
lar divinity, by soliciting an arrow, as above described. 

JTiey attribute the disease to the anger of some god, — Some- 
times a person is suddenly attacked with an unaccountable 
disease. Ilis family attribute it to some god or goddess un- 
known, which has become ofiended through some act or word 
of the person, and which, as a punishment, has sent the disease 
upon him. After such a conclusion, one of the family takes 
three sticks of incense in his hand, approaches the individual, 
and fervently and reverently inquires, in substance, " What 
god has this man offended that he is thus afflicted ? I beg 
that the divinity will make it knotc7i by the mouth of the sick^ 
so that I may readily go and render thanks.^"* If the sick per- 
son then should speak the name of any god or goddess, it is 
taken for granted that such a god or goddess has been the 
cause of his illness. Ofi*eriugs of meats and vegetables, to- 
gether with incense, candles, and mock-money, are, according 
to custom, prepared and presented before an image of the di- 
vinity whose name was mentioned by/the afllicted one. The 
object of all this is to propitiate the good-will of the divinity, 
and thus expedite the recovery of the patient. 

Sometimes recourse is had to divination, by means of a tor- 
toise-shell and three ancient cash, in order to ascertain what 




SICKNESS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ANGER OF A GOD. 147 

divinity has been offended, and what must be done to propi- 
tiate it, and where the ceremony must be performed, etc. 

Oflcn the sick person will himself (speaking for the god of- 
fended) declare the day, month, and year when he abused or 
paid manifest disrespect to some idol in a specified place, and 
that his soul is to be taken to the lower regions to spffer pun- 
ishment for this sin, which punishment it now becomes the ob- 
ject of the family to prevent, by propitiating the oficnded di- 
vinity through offerings of meats, incense, and mock-money. 

It is a very prevalent belief among the common people that 
those who insult the images of the gods and goddesses wor- 
shiped here will bo seized with colic, or with some painful dis- 
ease, as the positive punishment for such conduct. Probably 
this sentiment conduces very much to the respectful treatment 
which is universally shown to the idols carried in public pro- 
cession through the streets, even by persons who are not en- 
gaged in them, and who are delayed or annoyed by them. 

It is not un frequently remarked, in regard to the sickness 
of children, that perhaps they are suffering from the influence 
of a goddess of children, familiarly called "Mother;" or, in re- 
gard to the ailments of a husband or a wife, that he or she, as 
the case may be, has offended against a certain god of bad re- 
pute worshiped by prostitutes. These divinities must be pro- 
pitiated by a presentation of meats, mock-money, etc., when it 
is supposed the persons afflicted will speedily recover. 

They ascribe the disea^ to the enmity of the spirit of a de- 
ceased j^rso7i, — Sometimes, when one is taken with sudden 
and severe pains, and becomes quite ill, or when one^s business 
goes wrongly, and he loses money, such a state of things is 
frequently ascribed to the grudge or enmity of the spirit of 
some person, now deceased, but who was offended, either in 
the present or in a former state of being, by the sick man, or 
the man whose business languishes, or by his ancestors, for 
whose follies or for whose vices he is held responsible, and for 
whom he is made to suffer. In view of such suspicions, the 
family proceed to prepare several suits of paper clothing, a 
miniature paper umbrella, several pairs of small straw sandals, 
and a large sheet of paper. Tliey provide also an offering of 
meats, mock-money, candles, and incense. Several priests be- 
longing to the Tauist religion are then invited to repeat the 




148 SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 

formvUa for dissolving or untying grudges. Thoy perform 
the ceremony either in the sick man's house or in some tem- 
ple, burning the paper articles and offering the eatables ac- 
cording to the established custom. The object of this is to 
propitiate the inimical spirit, or cause it to take its departure. 
Unless this is done, it is feared that the same ill luck, or the 
sickness arising from the malevolence of an injured and offend- 
ed spirit, will disturb the man and his family in successive gen- 
erations, or at least until the revenge or the enmity of the un- 
friendly spirit shall have been satisfied. Buddhist priests sel- 
dom or never engage in the performance of the ceremony for 
dissipating grudges. Sometimes some of the members of the 
family themselves are able to repeat the formularies relating 
to this subject, which is believed to answer nearly as well as 
though it were done by hired priests. 

They invite the god of medicine to their hottse. — ^If one has 
very painful ulcers, malignant sores, or inflamed eyes, recourse 
is oflen had, by some of his family on his behalf, to a god of 
medicine, in somewhat the following manner : The friend goes 
to the temple erected in the god's honor and for his worship, 
but, as the god is quite deaf, he must be aroused and interest- 
ed in an extraordinary way. Some, therefore, rub or tickle 
one of his ears, and then present their requests, speaking into 
his organ of hearing thus excited. Others rub the part of the 
image which corresponds to the part of the body of the sick 
man which is affected, in order that the god may know pre- 
cisely where his services are needed. The suppliant, having 
burned incense and candles before the image of the "Doctor," 
returns to the home of his relative, the patient, carrying some 
of the ashes taken from the censer standing before the god, or 
from the medicine-box of one of his attendants, whose images 
stand near by. Now these ashes represent the " Doctor," and 
must therefore be treated with respect and reverence by the 
family. They are done up in red paper, and placed in the cen- 
ser belonging to the household, and incense and candles are 
dailjT burned before them, accompanied with kneeling and 
bowing. If the man's boils or ulcers disappear soon after this, 
it is attributed to the efficacy of the god of medicine, and the 
man must make a thank-offering to him in his temple, consist- 
ing of five or ten dishes of vegetables (no meats), with the 




BECOMING SECURITY FOR A SICK MAN. 149 

enstomary burning of candles, incense, and mock-money, re- 
tarning at the same time the ashes which were previously ob- 
tained from the temple. This doctor is a Grahamite. 

TTiey get ten men to become *'*' security^^ for the eick person. 
— ^When one is sick, and medicine seems to do no good, some- 
times his relatives and friends, of ten different families, en- 
deavor to benefit him by becoming a kind of " security" for 
him. Each family contributes one hundred cash, which is paid 
into the hands of a member of his family. This amount not 
being sufficient to defray the expenses of the subsequent feast 
and ceremonies, what is needed in addition is furnished by the 
family. They purchase a quantity of eatables, as pork, fish, 
fowl, eggs, fruit, wine, cakes, etc., and provide a feast for these 
ten friends in a temple. These articles are, however, first pre- 
sented before the idol worshiped there, as an offering, in order 
to obtain the aid of the god in restoring the sick man to health. 
The names of these ten persons, written on a piece of paper, 
are also burned before the idol, as a fancied security for him. 
Besides, several priests are employed to recite their formulas, 
and perform certain other ceremonies for the benefit of the 
sick man. After the conclusion of these preliminaries, the ar- 
ticles provided are arranged on tables for eating, and the ten 
friends, the priests, and other guests, if any have been invited, 
sit down to the feast. When the representative of the family 
returns home, he carries a certain wooden vessel, holding about 
a peck, being four-sided, and larger at the top than at the bot- 
tom, containing some rice, ten chopsticks, which are placed in 
an upright position around the sides of the measure, also one 
pair of shears, one foot-measure, one metallic mirror, and one 
money-balance or scales. These four articles are placed in the 
centre of the four sides. In the centre of the measure is a 
burning lamp, in front of which, or on the sides of which, arc 
two candles and three sticks of incense, all lighted, and, final- 
ly, a small wooden stick or image representing the sick indi- 
vidual. 

As soon as he reaches home, some of the rice in the meas- 
ure is immediately taken and made into congee, which is given 
to the sick man to eat, if possible. The measure, with its con- 
tents, is placed in the room where the sick one is. The lamp, 
the candles, and the incense are allowed to bum as long as 




150 



SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OP DISEASE. 



they will. They most go out of themselves, and not be extin- 
guished by design, as that would be a very inauspicious omen. 
ITiey endeavor to bring back the departing spirit of the 
sick man, — When one is very sick, and apparently sdmost 
ready to die, as a last resort the following method is some- 
times adopted to prevent the death of the sick man, and re- 
store him to health : Several priests of the Tauist sect are en- 
gaged to repeat their formulas in a temple for his benefit. At 
the house, or near it, another ceremony is performed ; some- 
times, however, that too is performed in the temple. A bam- 
boo, eight to ten feet long, having fresh green leaves at its 
little end, is provided. Near this end there often is fasten- 
ed a white cock. One end of a red cord is tied around the 
centre of a two-foot measure, and the other end is made fast 
around the bamboo, among the green leaves. A coat belong- 
ing to the sick man, and very recently worn, is suspended on 
this measure, its ends being put into the arm-holes of the gar- 
ment. A metallic mirror, having a handle to it, is then tied 
on this measure in such a manner that it will come a few 
inches above the shoulders of the garment, in the place where 
the head of an individual would come were the coat to be 
worn. Some one of the family takes this bamboo pole and 




BBINOIMO HACK TUE SOUL Or TUX MOK IMTO UUI CLUTUKM OM TUK BAHDOO. 




FOLLOWING A BOOK OP CHABMS. 151 

holds it loosely in his grasp in a perpendicular position, stand- 
ing not far from the house, or in the temple if conveniently 
near. A priest now begins to call over the name of the sick 
person, and to ring his bell, and to repeat certain incantations, 
the object of which is to cause the sick man's spirit to enter 
the coat. The white cock and the bright mirror are supposed 
to perform an important part in effecting this desirable ob- 
ject. After a while the polo is sometimes observed to turn 
round slowly in the hands of its holder, which circumstance is 
believed to be a sure proof of the presence of the spirit of the 
sick man in the coat. At the conclusion of the ceremonies 
the coat is taken from its place on the bamboo pole, and 
placed as soon as possible on the body of the sick man, or it is 
spread over him as he lies on his bed, if he is too sick to allow* 
its being put on properly. 

It should have been premised that the spirit of the sick man 
is supposed to have left his body, and yet to be hovering 
around in the vicinity. It is supposed also that it can be in- 
duced by the performance of the ceremonies above described 
to return to the coat which has been but recently worn by the 
person to whom the said spirit belongs ; and, if it but enters 
the coat, it can bo transferred to the body of the sick man, 
and perhaps be prevailed upon to remain there. 

They folloto out the directions of a book of charms. — 
There is a very singular method of treating unimportant dis- 
eases of children, or their common pains, as headache, colic, 
etc., very frequently resorted to by their parents at this place. 
A small book, said to have been made a long while ago by one 
who was then the chief of Tauist priests, contains a list of 
days, with directions how children should be treated who are 
taken with certain symptoms on these days. If a parent wish- 
es to follow out the teachings of this book, when his child is 
sick, he has only to look for the day and the hour when it was 
taken unwell, and ascertain whether there is any correspond- 
ence between the symptoms given therein and the symptoms 
of his sick child. If there should be a correspondence, he is 
instructed what to do to remove the disease from his child, 
and also what evil spirit is the cause of the illness. What he 
is instructed to do is designed to appease this spirit. Specific 
directions are given, according to the time, disease, and spirit 




162 SUPEBSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 

concerned. Perhaps he must buy a certain number of sheets 
of white and of yellow mock-money. He must prepare a 
picture of a horse, and also of a boy or of a girl, as the case may 
be, like the pictures of the horse, the boy or the girl, found in 
the book as patterns. This can be done by taking a piece of 
paper and laying it on the figure found in the volume, and 
then tracing the outlines with a pen. These must be burned 
with the face of the performer turned toward the north, east, 
south, or west, according to the directions of the book. Some- 
times, also, a few dishes of vegetables and cakes are to be of- 
fered to the mischievous spirit, all according to this doctor- 
book. 

They hum a paper image as a kind of substitute. — When 
one is very sick, sometimes a ceremony is performed, the ob- 
ject of which is principally to propitiate the god which, accord- 
ing to them, rules over the current year. The ceremony takes 
its distinctive name from a rude picture of a human being 
drawn on or cut out of a piece of paper, representing the sick 
man. This is pasted on a slip of bamboo. About one hund- 
red pieces of mock -money having been pasted into a cer- 
tain form, and placed together in a square or round package, 
the paper image is stuck into it by means of the bamboo slip. 
This package is then put into an open, shallow bamboo basket, 
such as farmers use oftentimes for drying grain. A plate con- 
taining a small piece of uncooked pork, one duck's Qggy a little 
fowl's blood, and one unbaked cake, is also placed on this shal- 
low basket, v^nth three cups of wine, and some incense and 
candles. This basket and its contents are then placed under 
a table, on the ground, or on a low stool. On the top of this 
table are also placed a pair of candlesticks, and a censer for 
candles and incense, together with five, or eight, or ten plates 
of meats, fish, fowls, bread, and vermicelli. After the ofiici- 
ating priest has recited his formulas and incantations, some 
member of the sick man's family takes the package of mock- 
money, having the paper image still sticking in it, and, hold- 
ing it BO that the face or front of the image shall be to- 
ward the outside of the house, carries it out of doors. The 
priest follows him after pronouncing one or two sentences, or- 
dering the departure of the disease, or whatever troubles the 
sick man. After both parties are out of the house, and while 




PRIEST ASCENDING A LADDER OF KNIVES. 



153 



Standing in the street, the priest spouts from his mouth some 
water over the man, and the mock-money, and the representa- 
tive image. Afterward the image and the mock-money are 
burned, and the whole ceremony is concluded by the company 
feasting on the edibles which have been offered to the presid- 
ing and governing deity for the current year. This represent- 
ative image is supposed to 
carry off whatever iuterf<3res 
with the recovery of the sick 
man* The bread, the vermi- 
celli, and the duck^s egg are 
all omens of good, and sus- 
tain an important reblion^ 

Tttet/ hire one to asoend 
m ladder of knwes.Some- 
times a company ofTauist* 
priests are engaged by the 
family of a sick man to per- 
form their incantations and 
repeat their formulas for his 
benefit, accompanied bi/ as- 
cending a ladder of knives. 
A ladder la extemporized for 




ASCSNniNO A LVDPBll (>r KMITrS. 




154 



SUPERSTITIOUS TBEATMENT OF DISEASE. 



the occasion, the rounds of which consist of swords or long 
knives, with the edge upward. At a certain part of the per- 
formance, one of the priests, barefooted, ascends this ladder, 
and, after arriving at the top, he stands there a while and re- 
cites some spells for the relief of the sick man. It is thought 
that the wicked spirits, who take delight in troubling man- 
kind, will see the swords, and will be frightened, not daring 
to approach the man to do more evil. The gods, too, it is 
hoped, will thus be influenced to take pity on the afflicted man, 
and expedite his recovery to accustomed health. This ascend- 
ing a ladder of knives, compared with some of the other meth- 
ods above described, for the benefit of a sick person, is seldom 
practiced, perhaps because of the danger of being injured by 
the knives on the part of the individuals who engage in it. 

•TTiey implore the Aid of certain Divinities in curing Small- 
pox and Measles, 

The Chinese dread the ravages of the small-pox and of 

the measles among their chil- 
dren. They have goddesses to 
cure these diseases. These are 
ranked among the most popu- 
lar objects of worship among 
all classes of the people at this 
place. From the time when it 
is known that a child has the 
small -pox until his recovery, 
there is more or less worship 
of some goddess of sraall-pox. 

On the third day after the 
pustules have begun to appear, 
it is a universal custom for one 
of the family to go to a baking 
establishment and procure ten 
small bits of Chinese yeast. 
These are steamed in the usual vessel for steaming rice belong- 
ing to the family. They soon begin to swell, and become sev- 
eral times larger than they were before steaming. These are 
then removed from the steamer and placed before the picture 
of the goddess, or whatever represents her majesty. The de- 




uoubKJM or tOAALL-rOX. 




BEATING A OONO WHEN IT THUNDERa 155 

t^;n of this operation is to cause her to exert her influence to 
have the pustules redden, fill up, and swell out, in resemblance 
of the swelling out of the balls of yeast when steamed. Two 
days after this, ten more of the yeast bits are procured, steam- 
ed, and' presented before the goddess, in a similar manner and 
for the same purpose. After waiting two days more, ten bits 
of yeast are again treated in the same way. The most im- 
portant and critical period is said to be these seven days after 
the pustules first appear. 

On the ninth day an offering is generally made to the god- 
defls, designed as an expression of thanks for her goodness in 
case the pustules have filled well, and the child is getting bet- 
ter. The offering consists of fish, meat, fowl, and vegetables. 
If the child should not be doing well on the ninth day, the 
thanksgriving is deferred, or, if the child should have died, no 
thanksgiving is made. 

After the pustules have come out and before the end of the 
seventh day, whenever it thunders some member of the fam- 
ily beats on a drum or gong, placed ready for use when cir- 
cumstances demand. The noise produced in this way is kept 
up as long as the thunder lasts. The beater has some one to 
assist him, tolling him when the thunder has ceased, as the 
beater of the drum or gong is unable to tell when there is no 
thunder. The object of this is to prevent the pustules of the 
small-pox from breaking or bursting. As some explain the 
custom, the ringing of the bell or the beating of the drum, pro- 
ducing very familiar sounds, is designed to keep the lad from 
being frightened by the noise of the thunder, and from doing 
any thing which would cause the pustules to break. Others 
say that it is feared that the noise or the reverberations of the 
thunder will make the pustules sink down and dry up sooner 
than is desirable, and therefore they use the gong or the drum 
to counteract such a result. 

On the fourteenth day after the lad has been taken down 
with the small-pox, some one of the family procures a few 
black beans which have a small green speck upon them, and 
roast them in the iron vessel used for cookin-: rice. After 
roasting these beans until they become brittle, they are placed 
before the goddess of smallpox. The lad who is the object 
of solicitude is placed in a sitting posture upon a largo win- 




166 SUPEBSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 

nowmg sieve made out of bamboo splints. On the top of his 
head is then put a small piece of red cloth, and the parched 
beans are taken from before the goddess and laid upon this 
red cloth, whence they are allowed to roll off The scars left 
by the pustules of this disease are thought to resemble some- 
what this bean in their general appearance. The name for the 
bean, pronounced in the dialect of this place, is identical in 
sound with the common name for the small-pox. This iden- 
tity in name, and this similarity in appearance between the 
bean and the small-pox, have probably given rise to the cere- 
mony above described, which indicates the strong desire that 
the pustules should dry up^ and become in appearance like the 
parched bean t 

After it has become known among friends and relatives 
that the lad has broken out with the small-pox, they often- 
times send to his family a present, such as a few soft sweet 
cakes, one or two pounds of white sugar or the white date, 
one or two parcels of arrow-root, or two or three pounds of 
ham. The design of making these presents is to express their 
sympathy with the family of the sick lad, and to indicate their 
hopes that the scabs of the smallpox may fall off. In other 
words, these presents indicate tlie strong wishes of the donors 
for the happy recovery of the sick lad. The period for mak- 
ing this present, which is named the ^^ scabs of the smallpox 
falling q^," extends from the seventh to the fourteenth day 
after the pustules begin to make their appearance. 

If the child recovers, the family make to those who present- 
ed the tokens of their sympathy during his illness a return 
present, which is regarded as an expression of their gratitude 
to them for their kindness. The return present consists prin- 
cipally of Chinese sandwiches. The number of these sand- 
wiches sent back varies from fifteen or twenty up to a hund- 
red to each family. 

At the end of one month from the appearance of the disease, 
if the child is well, the family make a thank-offering to the 
goddess of small-pox for her benevolent and powerful aid in 
restoring the child to health. The ceremony is oftentimes 
quite imposing, and the kinds of food presented numerous and 
of good quality. The poor are frequently able to make but a 
meagre thank-offering to the goddess, though it is probably as 




GODDESS OF MEASLES WORSHIPED. 167 

rincere and as kindly received as a thank-offering made of 
costly and numerous kinds of edibles. 

When a child has broken out with the measles, recourse is 
usually at once had to the goddess of measles for her aid in 
bringing it to a happy termination. At various times during 
the progress of the measles, more or less applications are made 
to her majesty, who is generally represented by a slip of paper 
on which her name and title have been inscribed. On the re- 
covery of the child, the family offers a thanksgiving in honor 
of the goddess of measles. 

77l<y employ novel Methods for curing and preventing Chol- 
era and other epidemic Diseases. 

The cholera suddenly appeared at Fuhchau in the summer 
of 1858, and in the course of a few days caused great excite- 
ment and alarm among the native inhabitants. Those attack- 
ed by it oflen died in less than half a day. It usually was at- 
tended with purging and vomiting, though sometimes it only 
produced purging without vomiting, or vomiting without purg- 
ing. The progress of the disease was so rapid and fatal, that 
instances occurred where the sick person was carried out in a 
sedan chair to the b«rying-place decided upon while yet alive, 
with his grave-clothes and coffin, in the sure expectation of his 
death. 

The people believe, or profess to believe, that epidemics in 
summer, and malignant diseases in general, are under the con- 
trol oi^Hhefive emperors or rulers?'^ This term refers to five 
idols or images much feared by the common people of this 
place. It is a very usual method of frightening children to 
obedience to tell them that the "five emperors will catch 
them** — that is, will give them the colic. 

There are numerous temples dedicated to them. These rul- 
ers have several attendants. The representations of two of 
them are very frequently paraded through the streets, espe- 
cially in the hot summer months, forming a part of an " idol 
procession." Foreigners usually call them " the tall white 
devil" and " the short black devil," from their general appear- 
ance, size, and color. The former is often eight or ten feet 
high. Its body consists of a sli<xht bamboo frame-work, usual- 
ly covered with light-colored silk, or bluish or white cotton 




158 



SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 





SaOBT III.A.GX DXVIL. 



TALL WUITE DEVIL. 



cloth. It has a head, arms, 
and hands, bnt, as it appears 
in the streets, no feet, and is 
made to move by a man who 
gets into it, his own feet be- 
ing seen below the dress of 
the image. There is a small 
hole made in the front part of 
it, as high from the ground as 
the head of its carrier comes, 
6o that he can see out, and 
thus be enabled to walk with- 
out the constant danger of falling down, or running against 
objects. The other image is from four to five feet high, very 
corpulent and very black, its frame-work being in like manner 
made of bamboo. It is also carried by a man or boy inside 
of it. A hole is made in its hat, so that the person inside can 
see out. Both of these " devils" are horrid-looking objects, 
and when seen by the foreigner for the first time, parading in 
an idol procession, are enough to^ strike him with dismay, as 
well as arouse his indignation. 

Idol processions, consisting of images of the five emperors 
borne in pomp in large sedans by eight bearers, and their 
servants, the white and the black devils, attended by a numer- 
ous retinue of living worshipers, as lictors, heralds, etc., had 




BURNING PAPER BOATS BY THE RIVER. 159 

thronged the streets of this city and suburbs in greater num- 
bers and more frequently than in former years for several 
weeks prev jous to the appearance of the cholera. These pro- 
cessions marching to and fro, sometimes in the day and some- 
times in the evening, through the by-lanes and narrow streets 
as well 'as the main thoroughfares, were accompanied by men 
and boys furiously beating gongs and drums, and bearing 
lighted incense before the idols. Each temple dedicated to 
the worship of the five emperors sent forth its portable im- 
ages. Sometimes the companies proceeding from different 
temples, uniting in the streets, would form a long, and, in the 
estimation of the Chinese, an imposing procession. 

The object of this display was to propitiate the good-will 
of the five emperors, and to induce them to banish, or to keep 
away from this city, epidemics and the diseases which usually 
prevail in hot weather. For this laudable purpose the Chi- 
nese were willing to subscribe money to defray the necessary 
expenses, which, in the aggregate, must have been considera- 
ble. It is customary for those processions to appear in the 
streets in July and August, in order to prevent summer com- 
plaints. 

These processions were principally brought to an end dur- 
ing the first part of August with the burning, on the banks 
of the River Min, of several tens of paper boats twenty or 
thirty feet long. These boats, whose frames were made out 
of bamboo covered with variously-colored paper, presented a 
pretty appearance as they were borne along through the 
streets to the river-side at night by men with torches. Pre- 
vious to the carrying forth of each boat from the temple to 
which it belonged, there was a performance of superstitious 
ceremonies before it, as it were to consecrate it, consisting, in 
part, of the burning of incense and candles, the chanting of 
formulas by priests, with sj^ecial offerings to the five emper- 
ors, attended with the beating of gongs and drums. After 
arrival at the side of the river, just before burning the boat, 
all the " black" and " white" devils which happened to bo 
there ran at the top of their speed around the boat, and then 
reverently kneeled down in a row near by until the flames 
had consumed it. The object designed to be accomplished 
by the burning of these boats was to collect and seud out to 




160 SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASK 

sea the diseases and the unhealthy influences which the five 
emperors were willing to send away from the place. 

But these precautionary sanitary measures proved unavail- 
ing. Only a short time after these proceedings were finished, 
and still while the people were rejoicing in the expected ex- 
emption from pestilence in consequence of the conciliation of 
the gods, and the large amount of good deeds they had per- 
formed, the cholera broke out. In a short time consternation 
spread among them, and changed their joy into solicitude. 

Some of a certain class of persons, who profess at times to 
be possessed of the spirit of the gods, reported that the five 
emperors had revealed to them the cause of the appearance 
of the cholera. These magicians said that the boats were not 
furnished with funds sufficient to pay the expenses of the 
ocean voyage ; others said that the boats were too small to 
answer the purpose desired, and of course they were obliged 
to return to port, in order to part with the diseases they con- 
tained. According to the hints or the revelations made by 
those men, the managers of some of the temples dedicated to 
the worship of the five emperors again determined to go 
through the operation of collecting money, sending out the im- 
ages to parade the streets, and burning boats, in the hope to 
be more successful in securing for their own particular neigh- ' 
borhoods exemption from the ravages of the dreaded scourge. 

In addition to these processions, which were specially con- 
nected with the temples of the five emperors — which to dis- 
interested and unsophisticated foreigners would seem to be 
sufficient to accomplish the prevention or the expulsion of epi- 
demic diseases, if any sort or amount of idol processions could 
accomplish it — there was another kind, which became quite gen- 
eral and popular among the Chinese here in view of the alarm- 
ing prevalence of the cholera. It was said that resort had not 
been had to this particular kind of idol procession for thirty 
or forty years to any thing like the extent which it reached 
during the August of 1858. 

This kind of procession originates with the inhabitants of 
different neighborhoods, who contribute money for its ex- 
penses, and who expect to share its benefits. The time of 
performing it is only during the evening, extending until near- 
ly or quite midnight. It consists, in part, of carrying around 




KXTRAOBDINABY KIND OF IDOL PROCESSION. 161 

fancy lanterns, lighted with tapers, made in a large variety of 
sizes and shapes out of several kinds of gaudily-colored paper. 
Some of these were of the form and dimension of the official 
red umbrellas of the ^mandarins, and, being made to revolve, 
looked in the evening very prettily, if regarded only as a toy. 
Others took the shape of the official fans carried before high 
mandarins when they appear in the street. There were also 
men and boys who carried, suspended at the end of a bamboo 
pole, common cheap lanterns, or who bore nothing but burn- 
ing torches. Besides these there were also some persons 
who, as they walked along, kept beating at intervals gongs 
and drums with all their might, and others who played on va- 
rious other kinds of musical instruments ; and others still who 
bore with great solemnity some idol seated in a sedan or on a 
kind of throne, having in front, either carried separately by 
men or attached to the sedan or throne, incense and candles 
burning. If the image of one of the five emperors should ap- 
pear in the procession, then his two servants, the black devil 
and the white devil, would be sure to attend him. If some 
other idol should be carried, then men, dressed in a manner 
which has been chosen to designate or represent his servants, 
would attend him, besides many others with lamps or lanterns 
'and torches. The kind of idol for the occasion being decided 
upon by any particular neighborhood, a certain number of 
persons would go and prepare to appear in the procession, im- 
itating the dress, p^ition, and utensils appropriated to the 
servants of that idol. 

It was one of the privileges of every person who contributed 
to pay the expenses of this kind of procession to have it march 
in order past his door, if his house was situated upon any 
street or alley which allowed of any such passing by of the 
procession. This course was believed to insure him and his 
household immunity from the attacks of the epidemic disease 
it was designed to avert. 

This sort of procession, besides going through all the alleys 
and lanes of its own neighborhood, frequently united with sim- 
ilar processions belonging to adjacent neighborhoods. Then 
the din of all the gongs and drums, mingling with the outcries 
of the excited multitudes, became almost deafening and dis- 
tracting to any one who was nigh, and who did not sympa- 




162 SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 

thize in the performaDce. It was asserted that by this means 
the evil influences and the epidemic diseases which existed in 
one neighborhood or district would surely be driven away to 
another, and then from that neighborhood to another, and bo 
on until the city and the suburbs became entirely free from 
their influence or presence. 

All classes of the population seemed to have a personal in- 
terest in these processions, and sanctioned and encouraged 
them by their presence and their active assistance. The 
amount of time and money consumed in the ways above indi- 
cated during six weeks was enormous. But, after all these 
means to prevent it, the cholera continued to rage for weeks, 
and the people continued to be mad upon their idols. Want 
of success seemed only to encourage them to more arduous ef- 
forts to make the more noise and pomp, and to spend the 
more money. 

These extraordinary measures to cure or remove cholera 
signally failed even to protect the performers ; many who took 
an active part in the processions themselves fell a prey to the 
scourge they hoped iri vain to expel. The people, however, 
have not grown wiser by their failure. Every year, in the hot- 
test months, the processions of the five emperors and their 
servants parade the streets, that there may be less sickness and 
fewer deaths than there otherwise would be. 

They engage t;i Idol Processions as a tgken of gratitude for 

t/ie recovery of their Parents from Sickness^ or in order to 

secure their Longevity, 

For two days in the spring and two days in the autumn, the 
streets of the city and its southern suburb are paraded by sev- 
eral thousand men and boys, in connection with the annual 
processions of two of the highest gods worshiped in this part 
of the empire, in the performance of vows which they have 
made. 

These vows are made either under the open heavens, or be- 
fore the images of the god in whose processions they propose 
to engage, and relate to their own health, or the heidth and 
long life of their parents, grandparents, and brothers. Most 
generally the vows are made in view of the ill health of par- 
ents, or with a desire to promote their continuance in health 




PUBUC THAKK-OFFERING, OR ACT OF MERIT. 168 



and their longevity. The person who makes a vow promises 
to perform certain acts for a specified number of years, as for 
one, two, or ten years, and in connection with the annual pro- 
cession of a certain idol through the streets, in case his own 
health or the health of his sick relative should be restored. 

The performance of this vow, if it relate to benefits believed 
to have been already received by himself or his relative, is re- 
garded in the light of a public thank-offering ; if it relates to 
benefits yet in the future, it is regarded in the light of a meri- 
iarious act^ in view of which it is hoped that the god will be- 
stow the desired good. In the case of a vow made in behalf 
of a sick person, unless recovery should follow, no token of 
gratitude is offered in the public procession. 

A few days before the time fixed for the public procession, 
those who, in the fulfillment of their vows, expect to take part 
in it, go or send a friend to the temple of the god in whose 
honor the procession is to bo made, and report their names, 
and the particular nature of the vow they have made. These 
items are recorded in a book belonging to the temple. Each 
applicant pays the clerk of the temple eight or ten cents, and 
receives in return a printed schedule, which is filled out with 
his name, and the kind of vow made, and a few other partic- 
ulars. Tliis paper is dated and numbered, corresponding to 
the order in which application is made. Two printed slips of 
paper are also given to most applicants, which are numbered 
in like manner, and are to be used as a kind of seal, as will bo 
hereafter described. 

On the days appointed 
for the procession, each of 
these classes of perform- 
ers of vows appear in the 
streets, dressed according 
to custom, and having the 
appropriate utensils. 

Some have a small stool 
about one foot long and 
four or five inches wide 
and high. On the face of 
this stool the two strips of 
paper received from the 




WOI81IIP1NO W1T11 INUBNtB AND STOOU 




164 SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 

temple have been pasted in the form of the letter X. On one 
end of the stool there is a nail, or a piece of iron, extending 
upward, having a hole in it, so as to hold sticks of incense. 
These men are all neatly dressed in short coats, having straw 
or rush sandals on their feet, and a yellow charm stuck into 
the hair of their heads. Some of these have also a large wal- 
let suspended from their necks, coming down to their sides, 
for the purpose of holding the incense which they intend to 
use during the time of parading the streets. Thus arrayed, 
they join the procession very early in the morning. After 
walking along a few paces in the streets through which the 
idol they honor is to be carried, at an indefinite distance be- 
fore it, they turn round, and, facing it, though it may be out 
of sight, and even several li distant, kneel or squat down, both 
hands grasping the stool, which is placed on the ground. Usu- 
ally their knees do not touch the earth, they only making be- 
lieve, or pretend to kneel down, balancing themselves on the 
stools. The end of the stool in which the nail is driven, hold- 
ing one or three sticks of lighted incense, is turned from the 
performers and toward the approaching idol. They now rise 
to an upright position, still grasping the stool with both hands, 
and reverently raising it about as high as their heads. Then 
lowering it about as low as their waists, they wheel about, car- 
rying it before them, take a certain number of steps in the 
street, usually seven or ten steps, when they turn round, and, 
facing the idol, go through the same ceremony again. They 
then turn round, go the same distance, wheel about, and pre- 
tend to kneel again in a similar manner, and so on until they 
arrive at the limit of the procession of the idol for that day. 
On returning home from this place, they do not bow down in 
the streets, as they did in going to that place. Sometimes a 
company of four or five persons who have made this vow hap- 
pen to be together, or very near each other ; in such cases, as 
they simultaneously turn round toward the idol, place the 
stool on the ground, pretend to kneel, rise to an upright posi- 
tion, lift up their stool grasped with both hands as high as 
their heads, wheel about, walk the customary distance, again 
turn round, and perform the same ceremony, they present a 
very singular and unique appearance, which never fails to at- 
tract the attention of those passing through the streets. 




WBABINO THE OANGUE IN IDOL PROCESSIOX. 165 

Those who thus perform their vows amount to several hund- 
reds. 

Another class of persons appear in the procession having a 
large wooden cangue about their necks, in general shape and 




WXASUIO TBB OANOUB AS A TOKEN OF QBATITUDB. 

appearance like the cangues worn by culprits as a punishment, 
though not so heavy nor so large. The two slips of printed 
paper, having the number of the applicants written on it, given 
at the time of recording their names at the temple, are pasted 
on the front or upper side of the cangues, in imitation of the 
written inscriptions put by authority of mandarins on the 
cangues worn by culprits. These have the yellow charm stuck 
into the hair on their heads like those who have the stools and 
who bow every few paces. They, however, do not kneel down, 
but walk slowly in the street along which the idol is to be car- 
ried. Their number generally is much less than the number 
of those who carry the stool. Some also wear handcuffs. 

Another class of these performers of vows have much smaller 
cangues about their necks than the class just described. Some- 




166 SUPERSTITIOUS TREATMENT OF DISEASK. 

times thcro are two or three thousand of this class in a sbgb 
procession. Besides wearing the small cangue, which has the 
two slips of paper pasted on it as on the larger cangaes, these 
pei*8ons generally have their hands thrust into a kind of leath- 
ern or wooden cuffs. To these cuffs there usually is attached 
a chain made out of brass wire, which passes over the nedn 
of the wearers. Sometimes those who have cuffs on their 
hands have no cangue about their necks, but in its place s 
small chain which is locked on their neck, the lock coming 
under their chins. The ends of this chain hang down, or are 
attached to the cuffs around their wrist. 

Sometimes there will be seen in the procession several pe^ 
sons who have on a kind of red coat over their other clothes, 
and on that will be written a few words denoting in substance 
that the wearer is to be beheaded. These simply walk slowly 
along in the crowd. 

Another class of persons have neither the cangue for their 
necks nor cuffs on their hands, nor stools, but carry a single 
stick of lighted incense. Every few paces these kneel down 
in the streets, having first turned around so as to face the 
idol, and still holding the lighted incense in their hands. They 
then rise up, and, wheeling about, walk along tlie customary 
distance, when they turn around and kneel down, and so on, 
much as those do who carry the stool, as above described. 

On returning home from the place where the idol is to turn 
around and be carried back to its temple, the devotees take off 
their cuffs, cangue, etc., and carry them in their hands or under 
their arms, as is most convenient. 

Those who dress in red, and who thus profess themselves as 
wiUing to suffer capital punishment, are regarded as those who 
have made the highest or greatest vow possible, in order to 
promote the recovery of their dear relatives, or to secure their 
long life. Those who wear cangues on their necks or cuffs 
on their wrists acknowledge themselves as sinners against the 
idol in whose honor the procession is made, and voluntarily 
take the place of culprits. All these different ways of testify- 
ing their gratitude for the recovery of sick relatives, or to pro- 
mote their longevity, have a peculiar significancy, when inter- 
preted according to the popular customs of this place. 

In the course of a few days subsequent to the public prooes- 




CEREMONY BEFORE THE GREAT KIX^G. 167 

all those who received a schedule on their reporting their 
8 and the vow they have made at the temple a short time 
e the procession took place, are expected to take this 
lole and the two slips of paper torn off their stool or 
le, as the case may be, to the neighborhood temple near 
1 they live, and burn them before the image of the Great 
, accompanied with the burning of incense and candles. 
16 end of the number of years during which the persons 
d to engage in the procession once annually, as above de- 
jd, the cangue which they have used is burnt under the 
heavens, and an offering of meats and mock-money is 
Qted before the Great King. This Great King is be- 
1, as some affirm, to act the part of a local constable, and 
t these transactions to his superiors in the other world. 




168 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 



CHAPTER VI. 

DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

Singular or Superstitious Customs relating to Mourning and the unburied Dead: 
Bidding Farewell at Death.— Lighting Candles and Incense. — ^Tarning 
around the "Bridge-Ladder." — Offering Food and Wine to the Dead. — 
Cash used before the Place for the Spirit of the Dead. — The Burning of 
a miniature Paper Sedan for the Use of the Dead. — Putting " longeritjr^ 
Clothes on the Corpse. — Placing the Corpse in the Coffin. — Arranging a 
Table before the Place of the Spirit. — ^Tho "longevity" Picture. — ^Udng 
Cash to inquire of the Dead. — The Servant Devil. — Performing the Cer- 
emony for the Repose of the Spirit of the Dead. — Sleeping by the Coffin. 
— Bringing Water in the Morning, and Waiting on the Dead at Meal- 
time, and bidding " Good-night!'* — The Relatives make Presents for Use 
in Sacrificing to the Dead. — Worshiping the "longevity" Picture. — In- 
forming the Ten Kings of Hell of the Death of the Individual. — Obaerr- 
ing a Ceremony in Honor of the Seven Kings. — Putting on Mourning on 
the Seventh Day. — Celebrating every Seventh Day for Seven Times. — 
Ceasing to offer Rice at Meal-time. — The Present received by the mar- 
ried Daughter to dry up her Tears. — Celebrating the Sixtieth Day. — Ob- 
serving the Fourteenth and Thirtieth of every Month. — ^The Celebration 
at the End of Three Years, and Removing the Table from before the 
Place of the Spirit. — Observing the Anniversary of the Birth and the 
Death of the Dead. — Meritorious Ceremonies performed /or the Benefit qf 
the Dead: Mounting the Platform. — Letting go the Water Lanterns. — 
Breaking into Hell. — Spirits passing over the Bridge. — Introductory Serv- 
ice. — Issuing the Notification. — The bright Lantern of Seventeen Bnddhas. 
— Burning a Paper Sedan, an image of a Crane, and Trunks of mock- 
Money and mock-Clothing. — Sending Money to pay the Debt of the De- 
ceased, or for the Use of the Animal to which he belongs. — Public Notice 
of Mcritorions Ceremonies. — The Water -Ceremony. — Service of using the 
Names of 1000 Buddhas. — Bloody-Pond Ceremony. — Ceremony to propi- 
tiate the Ten Kings of Hell. 

Singular or Superstitous Customs relating to Mourning and 
the unburied Dead, 
It deserves to be particularly mentioned that when chil- 
dren or unmarried persons die, many of the customs which 
will be described are not observed. Generally, it is only when 
the deceased is an adult and married, and the head of a fam- 




BLDDI»t» FAREWELL TO THE DEAD. 169 

ily, his own parents or grandparents having already deceased, 
that these castoras are observed. 

They bid farewell at separation by death, — It is very de- 
sirable that the members of a family ^tionld all bo present, if 
possible, at the moment of the death of its head. Sons, daugh- 
ters, and the wives of sons, grandchildren, male or female, as 
well as the brothers and sisters of the dying man, as far as 
practicable, should gather around his bedside. When the 
last breath has been drawn, all simultaneously break out into 
loud lamentation and weeping. Some explain this custom by 
saying they thus bid him farewell. The departure of the dead 
is attended with doleful outcries and with passionate expres- 
sions of grief. The loud lamentation at death is often heard 
on the death of persons not married, and not the head of a 
fiunily, nor arrived at adult age. 

They light candles and bum incense. — All beyond death is 
regarded as dark by the Chinese. The dead are believed to 
be unable to see how or where to walk. On this account, a 
pair of candles and some common incense are lighted just 
after the death of a relative, being generally arranged on a 
chair by his bedside, or on the bedstead. The incense is put 
upon a bowl filled with ashes, in a flat position — that is, paral- 
lel with the surface of the earth, instead of being placed in an 
upright position, as usual when burning. The design of the 
candles is to light the spirit of the dead on its way. The 
candles are provided by his children or members of his family 
in the laudable expectation of aiding the dead to And and keep 
the right path. The proverb says, " One living, is a man, but 
dead, is a spirit.'' The spirit is therefore considered able and 
entitled to receive the odor of incense lighted for its benefit. 

They move or turn around a kind of ^^ br idye- ladder. ^^ — 
After the body has been laid out, this singular custom is ob- 
served in many families. Sometimes those families which 
have no married or betrothed daughters do not practice it on 
the death of its head. The married daughters, if living within 
reasonable distance, are expected to return homo with their 
husbands and children. 

Several Tauist priests are employed to prepare the "bridge- 
ladder" and aid in the celebration of the ceremony, at the ex- 
pense of the son-in-law or sons-in-law of the deceased. A 

Vol.!.— H 




170 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

post some seven or eight feet high is placed in a socket or 
frame standing on the ground, in a perpendicular position. 
Into holes made in the sides of this post are fastened several 
tiers of sticks or bamboo, two or three feet long. These sticks 
project outward and upward a little from the perpendicular 
post. Sometimes these sticks amount to several tens. The 
longer ones are placed toward the bottom, and the shorter 
ones toward the top, the lowest tier being three or four feet 
from the ground. At the extreme outer end of each is sus- 
pended by a wire a kind of glass cup containing oil and wick- 
ing, the whole constituting a kmp. On the top of the upright 
post is placed a caudle. Into a hole, about three feet from the 
ground, made in the upright post, is inserted a pole, project- 
ing at a right angle, some two or three feet longer than the 
longest of the sticks having lamps at their end. Tliis " bridge- 
ladder" is placed in the middle of the room. On one side of 
the room is placed a table having candles and incense upon it. 
On the wall or partition of the room by this table are sus- 
pended one or two large paper-hangings, relating to the infer- 
nal regions. The body of the deceased is lying on one side 
of the room, or, if there is an adjoining room which can be 
used, it is placed in it. 

When every thing is ready, the ceremony is commenced by 
lighting the lamps and candle on the " bridge-ladder," as well 
as the candles and incense on the table. The priests chant 
their liturgy amid the noise of cymbals. The married daugh- 
ter comes forward, having a white cotton cloth bound about 
her head, partially concealing her eyes, or she holds to her 
eyes a white cotton cloth much as one would a handkerchief 
while crying. The eldest son of the deceased, if there be a 
living son, now advances, and, taking hold of the end of the 
long pole, pushes gently against it ; the post turning on its 
socket, the entire " bridge-ladder" moves. The wife of the 
eldest son, his younger brothers and their wives, the married 
daughter of the deceased, and her children, etc., now follow 
slowly the elder brother as he pushes around the "bridge- 
ladder" for a few times. 

In case there is no son, a married or affianced daughter 
leads the company. During the period that this bridge-lad- 
der is thus made to revolve, all of the party join in loud lam- 




OPPEBINO FOOD AND WINE TO THE DEAD. 178 

entation and wailing. Their outcry, taken in connection with 
the chanting of the priests and the noise of the cymbals, make 
a very confused hubbub and tumult of voices and sounds. 
These, together with the sight of ^o many lamps and candles 
burning brightly in broad daylight, produce a very singular 
spectacle for the foreign beholder, which, once seen, will not 
be quickly forgotten. 

The object of this performance with the bridge-ladder is to 
lighten and assist the deceased on his way. It is called 
** bridge4adder^^ because it is fancied to resemble a bridge and 
a ladder. The bridge would aid the dead to pass rivers, and 
the ladder would help him to climb steep places, should he meet 
such impediments in his journey. 

TTiey offer food and wine to the dead, — After the ceremony 
of " turning around the bridge-ladder'^ has been concluded, 
and after the body has been dressed for the coffin according 
to custom, it is usually placed on the cover of the coffin. The 
eldest son now approaches and kneels down before the corpse. 
He then takes a cup of wine and offers it to the dead three 
times. He then takes some cooked vermicelli, by means of 
chopsticks, out of a bowl, and presents it to the mouth of the 
dead for three times. After this he takes a bowl of cooked 
rice, and makes a presentation in similar manner for three 
times. While he is performing these filial acts, all the rest of 
the family, brothers, sisters, and grandchildren, except the 
partner of the dead and those higher in rank, kneel down 
around the corpse and pour out their lamentations. If the 
eldest son of the deceased has previously died, his eldest son, 
if he has one, takes his place. In case ho has no son living, 
some one who has been adopted as the eldest son performs 
the ceremony, the second or the third, or any other of their 
children, never performing this ceremony unless adopted as 
the heir and representative of the eldest son. Sometimes, in 
wealthy families, a professor of ceremonies is employed to di- 
rect the eldest son in the discharge of his duties on this occa- 
sion according to established rules. The eldest son at this 
time wears a cap, with his clothing properly arranged, and 
having shoes upon his feet; but previously he has appeared 
Mrith disheveled hair, clothing disarranged, and in his stocking 
feet. 




174 DEATH, MOUBNING, AND BUBIAL. 

They provide cash to be used before the place for the spirU 
of the dead, — ^The dead man can not speak. He is unable to 
express his approbation or disapprobation of what is done for 
him by bis sm*viving children. But this difficulty has been 
remedied by the Chinese, who fancy they can tell the wishes 
or feelings of the dead by the use of cash in a certain manner. 
After the corpse has been clothed, and is about to be put into 
the coffin, some one takes two common copper cash, and ties 
them loosely together by a blue or white thread a few inches 
in length. These cash are then placed in the sleeve of the 
dead man. He is then made, by some one taking hold of his 
sleeve, to shake them out, so that they shall fall upon the 
ground. Their relative positions as they strike are noted and 
remembered, whether the two obverses come uppermost or the 
two reverses, or one reverse and one obverse. These cash are 
preserved for future use in making inquiries of the dead, pre- 
vious to his burial, after the table has been arranged before 
the place ofTiis spirit. A description of the process of such 
revelations of the will of the spirit of the deceased, alias "«ptr- • 
itual revelations^^'^ will be given when speaking of the arrang- 
ing of the ^^ table before the place of the spirit^ 

They bum a miniature paper sedan-chair for tJie use of the 
dead, — Soon after wine and food have been offered to the dead 
by the eldest son, and before the corpse is arranged in its 
grave-clothes, a small sedan-chair, made of bamboo splints and 
paper, and four bamboo and paper diminutive bearers, are ar- 
ranged on the .ground near the house. There are also pro- 
vided four cups of wine, and four or eight bread-cakes ; one 
cup, and one or two cakes, being put before each bearer. The 
chair and the bearers, when every thing is arranged, are set 
on fire by some member of the family, attended by one or two 
priests, who recite their liturgy and clap their cymbals together 
in approved style. The chair is provided for the use of the 
spirit of the dead. It is charitably supposed that he would 
enjoy riding, instead of being obliged to walk to the infernal 
regions. Bearers are also provided for conveying the chair 
and its occupant, as it seems to be doubtful whether sedan 
coolies can be readily engaged in the other world. The wine 
and the cakes are regarded as their wages, though it would 
appear to be very scant and small considering the length of 




PUTTINO GRAVE-CLOTHES ON THE CORPSK 175 

the journey. The wise thej are supposed to imbibe when 
they feel the Deed of something exhilarating, and the cakes 
they use for luncheon en rotUe. Though their wages are paid 
entirely in advance, there seems to be no apprehension lest 
they should fail in carrying out their contract. Some families 
provide a fiflh man, who is furnished with an umbrella of 
state, which he is expected to carry in front of the sedan en 
route to the world of shades. He is also thoughtfully provided 
with his wages in advance. Some affirm that the sedan and 
bearers are provided for the use of the neighborhood god^ "the 
Great King," while ho is conveying the spirit of the dead down 
to Tartarus. 

They put the " longevitg^^ clothes on the corpse, — ^The pre- 
cise time of putting on the longevitg or grave clothes is not 
fixed. The wealthy families in this place spend a great deal 
of money in procuring these garments for their dead. Often- 
times many of them are made of silk or crape, and the finest 
and the most expensive cotton fabrics. It is an established 
custom that, if three garments are put upon the lower part of 
the person, five garments must be put upon the upper part. 
The rule is that there must be tico nwre vpoji the ifj^yer than 
upon the lower part of the corpse. Oftentimes there are nine 
upon the upper and seven upon the lower. Sometimes rich 
families provide as high as twenty-one pieces for the upper 
part of the corpse, and nineteen pieces for the lower part. 
Probably, among the middle classes, about twelve garments 
are commonly used in dressing a corpse for the coffin. After 
the grave-clothes have been put on the corpse, it is tightly 
bound around with several pieces of cloth, usually two of 
which are white, and one is red. The white cloth comes next 
to the clothing. Some or all of it is torn up into strips, and, 
after being wound around the corpse in a certain manner, is 
tied into a kind of knot, which is considered auspicious or an 
omen of good. The body is all covered with these auspicious 
knots. Over the white cloth, or the white silk, if the family 
can affi^rd it, is put the red cloth, similarly torn into strips, 
and knotted. The two ends of the red cloth or the red silk 
are usually cut off, one piece being given to the eldest son, 
which he divides among his brothers. The other is some- 
times given to the sons-in-law of the dead, each having a little 




176 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

piece. This is regarded as an omen of. good to those who ob- 
tain it. 

They place the corpse in the coffin. — ^The children, grand- 
children, other relatives, and personal friends gather around 
to witness the placing of the body hi the coffin. Preparatory 
to this, the corpse, while lying on the cover of the coffin, is 
turned half tjoay around, so that its head comes where its feet 
were. The coffin is placed so that its head is toward the front 
door, or the front of the house. When every thing is ready, 
the corpse is lifted from the coffin cover and placed in the 
coffin, while the children and grandchildren, etc., break forth 
into loud lamentation and wailing. The eldest son carries the 
head of the corpse, and his brothers or other family relatives 
aid him in placing the body into the receptacle provided. 
This is made of good wood, quite thick. In consequence of 
the number of grave-clothes put upon the corpse, the coffin is 
much larger than otherwise would be necessary to hold the 
body. On the bottom of the coffin there has been a quantity 
of ashes spread, and over the ashes some sheets of paper have 
been placed. Sometimes a large number of small bundles of 
ashes or lime are placed in the bottom of the coffin and along 
the sides of the corpse ; or, in place of the ashes, some bun- 
dles of the pith out of which arti6cial flowers arc made, com- 
monly called rice-paper, are used by some families. Over the 
corpse a piece of cloth is spread, and the cover is nailed down. 

During the performance of all these customs, candles and 
incense have been kept burning. Subsequently the candles 
give place to oil lamps in the practice of some families, while 
incense continues to be incessantly used. 

They put a table before the place for the spirit, — Soon after 
the lid of the coffin has been nailed down, the children of the 
deceased produce and arrange in the reception-room of the 
house a chair, a table, and a bamboo or wooden frame. The 
frame usually consists of four small posts, about five or six 
feet high, with cross-pieces or bars, so as to be four or five 
feet wide, and one or two feet deep. Sometimes this frame 
is covered over with white paper or white cloth, and the *' Ion- 
gevity picture*'* is hung upon it so that one, on entering the 
room, can see it readily. The table is placed several feet from 
the back wall or the partition of the room. Behind it is placed 




ABRANGINO A TABLE BBFORE THE SPIRIT. 177 

the cbair, and immediately behind the chair is placed the frame, 
having upon it the longevity picture. Near the chair, or under 
it, is a small foot-stool, on which are placed a pair of shoes. 
On the chair itself is often placed a coarse-looking rag doll, or, 
rather, a. roll, about one foot high, made out of cotton cloth, 
which is twisted and knotted, or tied up so as to resemble a 
hnman being, especially by the aid of the imagination. This 
18 said to be always used, in case there is no longevity picture, 
to represent the deceased. This rag doll is made to stand up- 
right, leaning against the back of the chair. 

The longevity picture is intended to be a likeness of the per- 
son whose death is mourned. It is commonly made about as 
large as a child six or eight years old ; oftentimes the artist 
is called to paint it after the death of the individual. It rep- 
resents him in a sitting posture, and dressed in his official 
robes, with button of rank, if an officer or a graduate ; if not, 
he is represented as having on a nice suit. The picture is 
often gaudily painted. 

On the table arranged " before the spirit'^'* is placed a bowl 
having incense in it, which is kept burning for forty-nine days 
and nights. There are also placed on it a pair of candles or 
lamps, which are lighted at meal-time, and also whenever any 
thing is transacted before the longevity picture with reference 
to the dead ; also two chopsticks for the use of the spirit 
when supposed to be eating. About the centre of the table 
are arranged a bowl, turned bottom side upward, professedly 
to hold rice, and a wine-cup, also bottom side up, for the pur- 
pose of holding wine, at the time of eating or of offering food 
and wine to the spirit by his children. If the bowl and cup 
are used, they are, after being washed, placed back on the ta- 
ble, bottom side upward. These chopsticks, the bowl, and the 
cup are seldom used at meal-tirac, but others in their stead, 
they remaining in statu quo on the table. The table, chair, 
frame, and picture usually remain unmoved until the expira- 
tion of forty-nine, or sixty, or a hundred days after the de- 
cease of the individual, according as the family decide. Some 
families keep the whole or a part in position until the expira- 
tion of three years. 

The two cash which have been mentioned are carefully kept 
on the table, or are hung on the frame on which the longevity 

H2 




178 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BUBIAL. 

picture is suspended, so as always to be at hand for use when 
desired. Whenever the family wish to ask any thing of the 
dead, these cash are taken by some one and held in the smoke 
of the incense kept continually burning on the table, the per- 
son at the same time making the inquiry or stating the cir- 
cumstances in such a way that an affirmative or negative re- 
ply, " yes" or " no," can be given. When he has done speak- 
ing, the cash are dropped on the table. If their relative posi- 
tions, as they lie on the table, are the same as when dropped, 
the reply given by the deceased to the question asked by his 
children is regarded as affirmative. If diffisrent, the reply is 
regarded as negative. In such a case the inquirer must make 
some other inquiry, or repeat the same inquiry in substance if 
he pleases, the form being different, and try the cash again, 
and so on until an affirmative answer is obtained, as it would 
not do to desist when the answer is negative, and the dead ap- 
pears by the reply to be displeased or dissatisfied. 

The Chinese believe that in consequence of the dead man's 
not being able to pick his way safely to the infernal regions, 
but liable to lose the right path, the kings of Hades furnish a 
"little devil" to act the part of guide and servant to the dead 
man. Accordingly, the family make provision for the wantfl 
of this servant-imp, who is generally spoken of as the ^^ devil 
%oho foUotcs^^ by placing on a comer of the table before the 
" longevity picture" a chopstick and a small bowl for his use 
while piloting down to the Land of Shades the mortal recently 
deceased. Surviving relatives are anxious to treat this devil- 
servant well, so that it will serve rcspectfiilly, and guide safely 
the manes of their departed parent ; consequently, whenever 
they give any rice to him, they are always careful to give a 
little to the imp; and when they bum mock-money for their de- 
ceased relative, they are sure to burn some for the special ben- 
efit of the servant, thus keeping him in food and spending- 
money. The object of all this is to flatter and please the little 
devil, so that he may perform his duty faithfully and satisfac- 
torily to the dead person. Unless ho be treated with proper 
decorum, it is feared that he will become offended, and harm 
his master, load him astray, or refuse to pilot him. 

Tliey perform a ceremony for t/ie repose of the spirit of the 
dead. — Ailer the various things which have been described 




SONS SLEEPING BY THE SIDE OP THE COFFIN. 179 

have been properly arranged, three bowls or plates of food, as 
meat, fish, etc., are brought and placed on the table. The eld- 
est son approaches, and, kneeling reverently down before the 
table, makes three solemn bows toward the ground, crying and 
wailing. When he arises and retires, sometimes his brothers, 
if there are any, come and kneel down in similar manner, with 
tears and lamentations. All this is for the purpose of com- 
forting the soul of the dead, or one of its three souls, as the 
Chinese believe. This soul is believed, after this ceremony, 
to be or to remain somewhere in close proximity with the ta- 
ble, the chair, or the longevity picture. Some families, who 
can afford the expense, employ several priests, who recite their 
litnrgy, ring their cymbals or gongs, and perform a variety of 
ceremonies having for their object the pacification and repose 
of the soul of the dead. 

TRey sleep by the coffin as companions to the spirit of the 
dead. — ^The eldest son, and his younger brothers, if he has any, 
and they are able to bear the exposure, commence the observ- 
ance of sleeping by the side of the coflin, as a token of their 
filial and dutiful spirit. They keep up the custom until the ta- 
ble, chair, and the picture are removed, or until the cofiin is 
taken away. During the night, as well as during the daytime, 
a particular kind of incense is used called " dry incense?^ It 
is like a straight, small stick, about three feet long, and nearly 
as large as one's little finger, designed to last all night. It is 
considered quite important, as far as the dead is concerned, 
that the incense should not go out during the night. This in- 
cense is used, it is said, because it is straight, not crooked, and 
is representative of a straight road. A straight road is much 
less likely to be lost by the spirit of the dead than a crooked 
road. Hence the " dry incense^'* is employed, as it were, to 
lighten the dead man on his way. If it should be allowed to 
go out, it would be a matter of regret to the family, and es- 
pecially to the eldest son, on whom the mjiin responsibility 
rests at this time, as it might be the occasion of the dead man's 
losing his way to the infernal regions, notwithstanding the aid 
of his servant devil. The eldest son must not absent himself 
from the cofiin at night, unless too ill to perform his duties 
and trim the lights. 

Jliey bring hot water in the morning, rice at meal-times j 




180 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

and bid htm good-night on going to bed. — ^For forty-nine, six- 
ty, or a hundred days, as the case may be, the following cos- 
toms are observed by the children of the deceased, male or 
female. 

They bring hot water in a wash-basin early in the morning 
to the side of the coffin, as if for the dead man to bathe his 
hands and face. This is attended by all the family with loud 
and violent outbursts of grief. They also oflfer him refresh- 
ments, and burn mock-money for his benefit. 

At meal-time, twice per day, they bring to the side of the 
coffin, before they have eaten themselves, a bowl of cooked rice, 
and several plates of vegetables and meats. These are first 
placed on the table, after which they weep and lament, burn- 
ing mock-money and incense; afterward they take the food 
away, and proceed to eat their own meals. 

At bedtime they all come again to the table with weeping 
and lamenting, and, as usual, inform him of their intentions to 
"^o to bedj^^ as it were " bidding tJie dead good-night,^^ 

The sons sleep by the coffin on straw, without matting or 
pillows, keeping company with the dead by ?iight. 

The relatives make presents to be used in sacrificing to the 
manes of the dead, — Not long subsequent to the death of the 
head of a family, the eldest son sends around to near relatives 
a card informing them of the year, month, day, and hour of the 
birth of the deceased ; the year, month, day, and hour of his 
death, and stating the day when the family will go into mourn- 
ing. Those who receive such a card must provide some mon- 
ey, and put it in an envelope made of yellow or w hite paper. 
On the outside of this envelope, if made of white paper, is a 
strip of blue paper attached, upon which they write a couple 
of characters denoting the object for which the money is de- 
signed and the name of the donor, with three words meaning 
^^ I respectfully bow my head^'^ or "my respectful salutations." 
This is sent to the family, together with a quantity of mock- 
money. The money sent varies from twenty cents to eight or 
ten dollars. The two words written on the outside of the en- 
velope indicate that the money is to be employed for buying 
something to be used in sacrifice. 

Friends and relatives sometimes present to the family on 
this occasion a pair of hangings made of paper, or silk, or 




WOBSHIP BEFORE THE LONGEVITY PIGTUBE. 181 

broaddoth, on which are inscribed a couple of popular mot- 
toes or sentences. These are hung up in some conspicuous 
place in the rooms occupied for public purposes during the 
period of mourning. 

They kneel down and worship before the longevity picture. 
— ^Friends and relatives, who call to present their condolences 
to the afflicted family, are expected to kneel down and wor- 
ship before the picture representing the dead. Whoever thus 
worships, never worships alone. He expects some of the fam- 
ily, the eldest son, if not otherwise engaged, to kneel down and 
bow the head simultaneously with him, to keep him company. 
Some kneel down only once and bow the head three times. 
Daring this ceremony, some female member of the family, hid 
from view behind a white screen made of cotton cloth, or made 
of sackcloth, which is placed before the coffin in a corner of 
the room, breaks out in piteous and violent weeping. After 
the parties have risen to their feet, and before they retire from 
before the table, the female weeper comes forth and thanks 
the frieftd or relative for this expression of his sympathy. No 
fnend or relative would be willing to kneel down and bow his 
% respects before the longevity picture unless he Was sure that 
some one was in readiness behind the " filial screen'' to weep 
and lament at the proper time. He would feel very indignant 
should such a thing occur as paying his respects unaccom- 
panied by the weeping of some one, feeling that they could 
not afford to weep, though he came to mourn and condole 
with them. If of higher rank, he is not expected or allowed 
by the customs of society to kneel as do relatives of lower 
rank and common friends. He simply stands erect, and pays 
his respects by moving his hands, clasped together, up and 
down in the approved manner. Few persons of rank higher 
than the deceased come to condole with the family ; general- 
ly only those come who are of equal or lower rank. 

As a generic rule, friends may call and pay their condolences 
any time after the family are in mourning, until a notice is 
posted up on the outside of the front door returning thanks 
for the " condolence" which has been received. This paper is 
understood to indicate that hereafter no one is desired or per- 
mitted to present his condolences. In the case of poor fam- 
ilies it is sometimes put up on the tenth day after the death 




182 DEATH, MOUBNING, AND BUBIAL. 

of its head ; in the case of rich families it is not put up till 
after the forty-ninth or sixtieth day, when the chair, table, and 
the picture before which condolences are expressed are some- 
times removed, and the public mourning ceremonies brought 
to a conclusion. 

They inform, the ten kings ofheU of the death of the indir 
vidual, — Among the majority of the families at this place, on 
the sixth day aft^r the death of its head there is performed at 
the house a ceremony, the object of which is said both to be 
to inform the kings of the infernal regions of his death and 
also to pray for the forgiveness of his sins. Several Tauist 
priests are employed to officiate. They suspend three large 
hangings, two of which represents the ten kings of hell, and 
one represents the Three Pure Ones, divinities worshiped by 
the priests and devotees of the Tauist sect. They also ar- 
range a table " in the presence of heaven," having on it eight 
or ten plates of meats, vegetables, and wine. The offering of 
these things to the ten gods is accompanied with the recita- 
tion of formulas and the ringing of cymbals. At the conclu- 
sion of the ceremony, two of the priests sit down by the side 
of the coffin and inform the deceased of what has been done 
for his benefit, saying that his children, married and unmar- 
ried, and grandchildren, are present. 

Some families do not have this ceremony performed on ac- 
count of their extreme poverty, others because their ancestors 
were not in the practice of it, and still others because they 
have members who are in the employ of the emperor. These 
simply have a certain classic chanted before some images, ac- 
companied with the burning of incense, candles, and mock- 
money. The performances on this day, in wealthy families, 
often consume most of the day. It is regarded as an import- 
ant and interesting occasion. 

Thei/ observe a ceremony/ in honor of the seven kings. — 
This is done for the first time on the seventh day after the 
death of the individual, and is generally repeated on every 
seventh day for seven times in families which are able to bear 
the expense of the ceremony. It is always performed before 
sacrifice to the dead on these days. Its special object is to 
propitiate the good- will of seven divinities, who, it is affirmed, 
will, in all likelihood, seize and beat the dead, unless this cere- 




PUTTING ON MOUBNING. 188 

emony is performed in their honor. It principally consists in 
placing a common table " before the heavens," having upon it 
three cups of wine, three bowls or plates of vegetables, two 
caDdles, and mock-money. The candles and the incense are 
lighted, but the latter is not put upon the table, but on the 
ground or floor, where it is left for a while. The sons of the 
dead, wearing hempen clothes as badges of mourning, kneel 
down, the eldest son taking three cups of wine in succession 
and pouring out some of the contents on the ground, all mak- 
ing three bows toward the ground. On rising, the mock- 
money is set on fire and left to consume, together with the 
incense on the ground. The candles and eatables are taken 
and placed on the table before the place of the spirit of the 
dead, as an offering to him. This is done or concluded usual- 
ly about eleven o'clock in the morning, when other services or 
ceremonies may be had, according to the programme settled 
upon by the family. The coffin is oftentimes painted on each 
of these days. 

Tliey put on mourning for the dead on the seventh day, — 
Grenerally, after the prece<ling ceremony in honor of the seven 
kings, priests are employed to perform certain ceremonies, 
beating their cymbals, and chanting their formulas for a short 
time, having regard to the rulers of the infernal regions. After 
this the family ^>m^ 07i mourfiing. This is a very formal and 
important affair. The sons put on garments made of hemp 
cloth, of the natural color, over their other clothing. The 
grandsons put on garments made of hemp cloth, but of a yel- 
lowish tinge. Sons, daughters, and grandchildren, according 
to strict rules, have braided in their cues threads of hemp, or 
blue or white cotton. No red garment must be worn, nor 
silks nor satins, for the nominal period of three years, which 
is understood to mean twenty-seven months. The dutiful 
sons of the deceased may not sleep on a bedstead at night, nor 
may they sit on a chair for the space of forty-nine or sixty 
days if any guests or friends are present. They must stand 
or sit on the floor. They wear a whm strip of cotton cloth 
as a belt, and their caps, collars, and shoes are decked in 
mourning. On every seventh day for seven times the sons 
wear brown sackcloth over their ordinary clothing, and grand- 
sons yellow sackcloth, when engaged in sacrificing to the 




184 



DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 




manes of the dead when 
gaests or friends are 
present. On other days 
they may wear white 
cotton garments. The 
eldest son, on every sev- 
enth day, when going 
out to meet and escort 



guests, carries a 



staff 



: BOM DEK8SXT> IN MOUKMNO AMD OAXBTIMO 
TUX riUAL BTArr. 



about three or four feet 
long, on which, com- 
mencing at a few inches 
from the top down to 
the bottom, at intervals 
of a few inches, are 
pasted small slips of 
white paper. 

On the first seventh 
day, those relatives and 
friends who have been 
specially invited are ex- 
pected to be present at 
the time of offering sacrifice to the manes of the dead. This 
is done usually in respectable families under the superintend- 
ence of a professor of ceremonies. The sacrifice consists in 
presenting eatables, wine, incense, and mock-money, attended 
with kneeling and bowing on the part of the filial sons, the 
eldest son taking the lead. At the conclusion of the sacrifice 
and worship, the invited relatives and friends are feasted. 

The rich and many families in the middle class of society 
begin on this first seventh day a series of so-called ^* merito- 
rious" ceremonies for the benefit of the dead, which will be 
hereafter described. These ceremonies are performed by 
Buddhist or Tauist priests, as the family please to decide. 

On the fourteenth day — that is, the second seventh day 
after the death of th^ndividual, occurs another ceremony, 
attended with the presentation of four plates, consisting of 
various kinds of vegetables and wine, arranged on a table 
placed before the table in front of the spirit's place. Its par- 
ticular object is to implore Buddha to ferry over the soul of 




GUSST3 WORSHIP THE DEAD. 185 

the dead. The Chinese are taught to believe that his soul in 
this manner becomes comparatively free from guilt. 

On the twenty-first day the afflicted family generally pro- 
vides an entertainment for those relatives and friends whom 
they see fit or are compelled by the usages of society to in- 
vite. The guests are expected to worship the dead in the 
way which has been previously described. The feast is first 
offered in the usual way on a table in honor of the ten kings 
of hell. A professor of ceremony is employed to read at the 
proper time a kind of sacrificial ode or prayer, praising the 
dead for his virtues, and calling for pity on his soul. Afler 
the guests are seated at the tables, the professor of ceremonies 
calls out the ^^JUiaV^ sons and grandsons, and great-grandsons, 
if any, of the dead, from an adjoining room. They come for- 
ward, and, kneeling down on the floor, incline their heads to- 
ward the floor three times in front of the guests, which per- 
formance is designed to be an expression of their thanks to 
these guests for their generous presents of money to the liv- 
ing, as well as for their kindness to the dead, as evinced by 
their coming to condole with the bereaved family. 

The relatives and friends who do not come in person or 
send a representative to the feast on this day give great occa- 
sion for ofi*ense and hard feeling on the part of the family. 
The presents of such are very likely to be returned. 

On the twenty-eighth and on the thirty-fifth day, the family 
purchase food and other articles, and present them before the 
picture of the deceased, so similar in manner to the ceremo- 
nies performed on previous days that it is not necessary to 
describe them. The rich continue to have some meritorious 
performance on these days done by priests, but the poor sel- 
dom have any thing more than a few dishes of food and a 
quantity of incense offered or burned at the established place, 
as a kind of sacrifice to the dead. 

The forty-second day is generally regarded as a very im- 
portant occasion. If the deceased have married daughters, it 
is their duty, and doubtless they feel it is a privilege, to be at 
the expense of ceremonies which are believed to benefit their 
departed parent. They are at the expense of a feast to the 
invited friends and relatives of the dead at the house occupied 
by his' family. 




186 DEATH, MOUBKIKG, AND BURIAL. 

They employ a professor of ceremony to read the sacrificial 
prayer and direct in worshiping the dead. They usually send 
from their own houses a quantity of boiled rice, several plates 
of meats, wine, a large quantity of mock-money, incense, and 
candles. They also provide tea, tobacco, cakes, or betel-nut, 
and a large variety of articles, for use as luncheon for the liv- 
ing, and for the worship of the deceased. Th^y themselves 
make it a point to bo present, when possible. After the obla- 
tions of food have been made to the manes of the dead, their 
brothers call men, and send back to the houses of their sisters 
a large part of the meats and some of the other articles. The 
brothers add, at their own expense, several feet or a whole 
piece of red cloth or silk, a quantity of velvet flowers, ten pairs 
of chopsticks, ten bowls, three plates of vegetables, one fish, 
one crab, and one fowl. The design of these presents to their 
sisters on this occasion is to furnish them with ^^food and 
dothingy " Food and clothing," as the expression is used on 
felicitous and mournful occasions, is full of import to the Chi- 
nese, being ominous of good. 

If their sisters are wealthy, they also employ several Bud- 
dhist priests to recite their classics, and worship images of 
Buddha, for the particular benefit of their parent, who, they 
imagine, may be in troublous circumstances at this time. The 
performance is classed among those which are called meritoru 
<niSy and is done on the premises occupied by the family of 
the deceased. 

In case there are no married djiughters, the sons send to an 
eating-house and purchase boiled rice, to bo used on the occa- 
sion just as though it were furnished by their married sisters. 
The custom is fixed not to use rice which is cooked in the 
house on this day. Tlie sons carry on the ceremonies, on a 
diminished scale, at their own expense, not sending any thing 
away as if sending to the homes of their sisters. 

It is the popular belief that the dead arrives on this day at 
a certain place in the spirit world, whence he looks back on 
his home and neighborhood, and becomes, for the first time, 
aware of his own decease. Consequently, sad and afflicted in 
mind, he loses his appetite, and is unable to partake of rice 
cooked at home. In consequence of this belief, the family are 
unwilling to uso rice cooked at home in these ceremonies. 




CEREMONIES OF THE FOBTT-NINTH DAY. 187 

The forty-ninth day is also regarded as a very important oc- 
casion. Its services consist principally in performing " meri- 
torious (icts*^ of various kinds. The mourning family again 
provide a feast for invited relatives and friends. These first, 
one by one, kneel down before the table in front of the longev- 
ity picture, and how their heads toward the earth for three 
times. After the food, wine, etc., have been offered in sacri- 
fice to the dead, the friends and relatives present proceed to 
feast upon it. The sacrifice is, of course, attended with weep- 
ing on the part of the sons, daughters, and grandchildren of 
the dead. Some families have a particular ceremony perform- 
ed, which indicates that the "«ei;ew5," that is, the "meritorious" 
and other mourning services which have been performed on 
the seventh days from the date of the death of the individual, 
are now discontinued. This is a very busy and eventful day. 

Ihei/ perform the ceremojiy called " ceasing to offer the 
rice.^^ — ^This ceremony is usually performed on the forty-ninth 
day, but some families defer it to the sixtieth, or even the 
hundredth day. The custom is always observed whenever 
the family decide to discontinue the offering of food to the 
dead at the regular meal-times. Some families procure sever- 
al plates of meats, as pork, flesh of the goat, fowl, some vegeta- 
ble dishes, bean-curd, wine, rice tea, tobacco, salt, a kitchen- 
knife, a wooden block, some wood, oil, water, and some luxu- 
ries d la Chinois, and place them on the table. Other fami- 
lies only provide a few small bundles of wood, a little uncook- 
ed rice, some salt, and some oil. 

This is to indicate to the dead that he must procure and 
cook his own food after this, as his surviving descendants do 
not propose to furnish it to him any longer, cooked or uncook- 
ed, at regular meal-time. It is imagined the dead will under- 
stand these gentle hints, and make provision for his wants ac- 
cordingly. In order to supply him with spending-inoney, a 
large quantity of mock-money is prepared and burnt at this 
time, his filial children readily believing that now, as he must 
board himself, he will require a larger sum of ready cash than 
usual. At this time is burnt one stick of incense and one can- 
dle; the sons, daughters, and grandchildren kneel down in 
front of the table, and break out into most piteous weeping, 
calling on the dead, using the most affectionate and endearing 




188 D£ATH, MOUBNING, AND BURIAL. 

appellations, accordiDg to the relation they formerly snstained 
to him whom they now lament, as wife, son, daughter, etc. 

After this ceremony they do not offer the customary articles 
of food at meal-time to the dead. 

The married daughter receives a present from her father to 
enable her to dry up her tears. — When a daughter's husband's 
father or mother dies, it is customary for the family to which 
the daughter belonged to send to the afflicted family, on the 
day they put on mourning, a quantity of common mock-money, 
and paper representing silk, incense and candles, cash for bay- 
ing articles to be used in sacrifice, a sacrificial prayer, a ''gold** 
mountain and a ^'silver'* mountain, that is, paper made in 
shape like mountdns, and covered with tin foil, some of a nat- 
ural or silvery color, and some colored to resemble gold, all to 
bo used in sacrifices to the dead. On the twenty-first day 
they make another small present for a similar design. On or 
after i\\Q forty-ninth day they send a present of two kinds, as 
it is termed, designed to be eat€7% by the daugJUer^ called a 
present to dry up the tears. The idea is. that for the last forty- 
nine days she has wept a great deal for the dead, and now it 
is time to dry up the fountain of tears, and partake of suitable 
food ; in other words, it is now high time to stop her crying. 
The meat is always of some kind which is regarded as partic- 
ularly palatable and nutritious. 

77iey celebrate the sixtieth day, — On this occasion they pro- 
vide a number of plates of food, and incense, etc. But, besides 
these customary oficrings, which are placed on the table, they 
place on it a wash-bowl full of water. On the water they put 
the half of the shell of a duck's cgg^ which is left to float on 
the surface. A likeness of a duck, made of bamboo splints 
covered with paper, and painted, is brought forward. A pa- 
per image made in imitation of the human figure is placed on 
the duck, and the duck is caused to stand in the water in the 
wash-basin. The paper image personates the deceased indi- 
vidual. The egg-shell denotes a boat provided for his use. 
The duck signifies the means by which he gets over I The 
presentation of these emblems, and the more substantial arti- 
cles of food, are accompanied with the usual tokens of grief 
on the part of the members of the family. 

They observe the fourteenth and the thirtieth of every month. 




THEY THINK OF THE DEPAKTED. 189 

— ^It 18 a general practice at this place, on the occurrence of the 
fourteenth and the thirtieth of every month, after the family 
have intimated that no more rice will be offered to the manes 
of the dead at meal-time, to observe the following ceremony: 
In the evening the sons and daughters of the family all assem- 
ble together, if practicable. They provide a plateful of biscuit 
or bread-cakes, a plate of bean-curd, plates of meat, fish, cook- 
ed rice, a cup of wine, a stick of incense, and a pair of candles, 
which are placed on the table beibre the place of the spirit. 
They remember to provide a little of something for the special 
oae of the servant-devil. The family simultaneously weep and 
ory bitterly, and think of the departed. The alleged rea- 
son why they observe this custom on the fourteenth and the 
thirtieth of the month is because it is believed that the spirit 
of the departed parent or relative returns home on these days, 
and therefore the family are in duty bound to provide a plen- 
tiful repast for it, and to show it proper respect and honor — 
which surely is a good reason, if the fact be as believed. This 
oostom is kept up on the days specified until the three years 
of mourning are completed, or until the ancestral tablet repre- 
BeatXng the deceased is put in the niche or on the shelf where 
the other family tablets are kept. 

At the end of one hundred days, and at the close of one 
year from the date of the death of the individual, several plates 
of food, wine, etc., are offered on the table, attended with weep- 
ing, much as on the sixtieth day, toith this wide differetice^ 
there is no paper man, no shell of a duck's QgQ^ no bamboo and 
paper duck, and no wash-basin with water in it, placed on the 
table or used on the occasion. At the expiration of one com- 
plete year married daughters and grandchildren remove their 
badges of mourning, while sons and their wives, and the wid- 
ow of the deceased, if a man, are required still to wear their 
badges of mourning nominally two years longer. 

TTiey celebrate the erpiration of three years^ and remove the 
tabu before the place of the spirit, — At the end of three years 
in theory, in fact at the end of twenty-four months, the sons, 
daughters-in-law, and the widow remove their deep mourning, 
and put on light or half mourning, to be worn for three months. 
Before the deep mourning is removed from their garments, 
caps, and cues, several plates of eatables are offered on the ta- 




190 DJCATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

bic, and incense and mock-money are burned. All kneel down, 
bow their faces toward the ground, and weep with accustomed 
bitterness. The rejected badges of grief are thrown into the 
censer or furnace where the mock-money is burned. They 
then place the ancestral tablet in its niche, if ready, and not 
already placed there, again offering food to the dead, kneeling 
down as usual. They now remove the table, the chair, and 
the frame having the longevity picture upon it from the places 
where they have been for so long a time, if these things have 
not been previously taken away ; the chopsticks and bowls, 
which usually were to be found on the table, the chair, and the 
stool which stood behind it, together with the two cash which 
have been used so many times in questioning the dead, are 
never hereafter used in the family. 

Some, perhaps most families at the end of sixty days, remove 
the longevity picture or turn its face to the wall, leaving it 
until the coffin is buried, or until the end of three years, the 
table, cash, bowls, and the chair also remaining. Sometimes 
the table is, at the end of sixty days, turned around or placed 
nearer the wall than before. When the coffin is buried, wheth- 
er sooner or later, the tablet is placed in its niche or shrine, 
and the table, chair, picture, etc., are taken away. The cere- 
mony called " observing the three years" is never omitted. 

They observe the anniversart/ of the day of the birth and of 
the death of their dead, — After the tablet has been placed in 
the family shrine, the family twice per annum must observe a 
ceremony like the following, in memory of the day of the birth 
and the day of the death of their honored dead. Several 
plates of meats, cooked rice, with cups of wine, incense, can- 
dles, and a quantity of mock-money, are provided. They aro 
presented to the spirit of the dead, before his tablet, in the 
usual manner. Some families only observe this ceremony to 
the third generation, while most families observe it to the fiflh 
generation. At the end of five generations, some of the Chi- 
nese believe the spirits or souls of the dead may be bom again 
into this world, or become the spirits of birds, beasts, or rep- 
tiles, according to their deserts, in obedience to the laws or 
principles of the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. Hence 
no tJiblet of the dead is worshiped after the posterity of the in- 
dividual it represents have reached the fifth generation. 




CEREMONIES INSIDE OF FOBTY-NINE DAYS. 191 



Meritorious Ceremonies performed for the Benefit of the 
Dead, 

Some of the eeremonies above mentioDed properly come un- 
der the classification of '^ racritorioas^' in the estimation of the 
Chinese, the performance of which will benefit the soul of the 
departed. Other ceremonies, also called meritorious, will now 
be described. 

They are got up at the expense of the family of the deceased, 
thoagh the merit is understood to be put to the credit of him 
they mourn. The performers are either priests belonging to 
the Tauist or the Buddhist sects, or priests of each religion, 
according to the pleasure of the family. If both are engaged 
at the same time, they peribrm in different parts of the house, 
never mingling together and acting in concert in the perform- 
ance of the same ceremony. 

Some families employ priests twice or thrice, or more of 
the seventh days which succeed the decease of the individual. 
These ceremonies must not be performed on any day but on 
some one of the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, twenty- 
eighth, thirty-fifth,- forty-second, or forty-ninth day after his 
death, or on all of these days, as the family decide. Much de- 
pends upon the wealth of the family, the social standing or 
age of the individual, whether the meritorious ceremonies are 
few or many, cheap or expensive. It has been estimated that 
half of the trading and the mercantile class, four fifths of the 
rich, and three or four tenths of the literary class, have the 
meritorious ceremonies now to be described performed with 
more or less show and eclat when any of their number die. 

Of the ceremonies which are almost always performed on 
the last day, viz., the forty-ninth^ four will be described when 
speaking of " four superstitions practiced for the benefit of 
destitute and unfortunate spirits," viz., " mounting the plat- 
form^^ ^^ letting go the water lanterns^'* ^^ breaking into helQ'^ 
and " spirits passing over the bridge?'* It is not necessary to 
dwell on these ceremonies here, except to say that as perform- 
ed in private houses with special regard to the soul of a single 
person, and at the expense of a single family, they are on a 
much smaller scale than when performed in some public place 
and at public expense, and with reference to the hosts of dcs- 




192 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

titute and nnfortnnatc spirits which are believed to abound in 
the land of shades or roam about in this upper world. 

The ceremony of " informing the ten kings of heU of the 
death of the individuoT^ is introductory to all these meritori- 
ous ceremonies. After its celebration by families which de- 
cide to have others performed on the following day, arrange- 
ments are made for the notification of the " supreme rulery the 
pearly emperor^'* of the proposed celebrations. This service 
is performed late in the aflernoon or early in the evening, and 
consists principally of burning two paper horses and two pa- 
per riders, and a document in the name of the eldest son, giv- 
ing information to his " pearly" majesty of the transactions to 
be performed on the following day. This is done by priests, 
who burn incense and candles, beat the drum, and recite the 
usual formulas. This preparatory ceremony is performed only 
once during all the celebrations. Some explain its object to 
be to inform the gods generally in regard to the transactions 
of the succeeding day. 

On the same evening, after the issue of the notification^ a 
long bamboo pole is erected in front of the house. On the top 
of the bamboo is fastened the image of a crane, made princi- 
pally out of bamboo splints and the fibres of the bark of a 
palm-tree. Under this image is a covering, oftentimes several 
feet square, made also out of the fibres of the same material, 
and so constructed as to ward off the rain, in ordinary storms, 
from a lantern which is placed underneath. On the outside 
of this lantern, which is coarsely constructed out of bamboo 
splints and white paper, are written in black or in red ink the 
names or titles of seventeen Buddhas or gods. Hence the 
name of the lantern, the " bright lantern of the seventeen JBud- 
dhasP A candle is lighted in the lantern every evening. It 
is lowered and raised to its place by means of a rope and pul- 
ley. Now the grand object of thus erecting the lantern is said 
iohQ to let aU the Buddhas and the gods know ofthepefform- 
ances soon to be transacted, so that they can be present and 
partake of the food which will be offered. During the next 
day the meritorious ceremonies decided on are commenced. 

In the afternoon, the priests who are employed to officiate, 
and the dutiful sons of the deceased, go forth to some hill, if 
there be one sufficiently near the bouse. Here the priests 




SENDING MONEY AND CLOTHING TO THE DEAD. 193 

light incense and candles, and chant their formulas a short 
time; some one then sets on fire a sheet of paper, which has a 
statement designed for the inspection of the ^^ supreme nder^^^ 
informing him of the approaching completion of certain cere- 
monies. They soon after return to the house. Some families 
never perfoi-m this ceremony on a hill-top, but always at home, 
and in or by the house. 

For convenience sake, several ceremonies are here grouped 
together. A paper image, which has been provided, is taken 
by one of the sons and placed in a small paper sedan-chair, to 
which wheels have been attached. In front of the sedan, and 
connected with it by means of two pieces of bamboo, which keep 
it three or four feet from the ground, is a paper image of the 
crane, just as though the crane was to act the part of a flying 
pony and drag along the sedan. In front of the crane, and in 
a row, there are arranged several paper trunks, which contain 
mock-clothing and mock-money of various kinds, represent- 
ing, in the fancy of this people, sycee, gold, dollars, and cash. 
The paper clothing is either paper cut into miniature articles 
of clothing and pasted together, or paper on which the like- 
ness of coats, caps, and shoes have been printed or stamped, 
or it is simply rolls of paper of various colors, which are imag- 
ined to be silks, satins, or cotton goods. 

Sometimes friends and neighbors of the deceased embrace 
the opportunity of sending to their relatives and friends in 
the world of spirits boxes or trunks of clothing and money by 
the '' politeness'' of the individual for whose special benefit 
these ceremonies are principally designed. As the living take 
advantage often of a neighbor or a relative who intends to 
travel for health, or pleasure, or business, to send to distant 
friends parcels of value, so the Chinese have invented the hap- 
py expedient of sending to their deceased dear ones, by the 
care of the deady money and clothing. It is certainly a cheap, 
expeditious, and convenient method of making remittances to 
the other world, if really sure of accomplishing its object. It 
is believed that the dead man will deliver to its real owners 
the valuable property intrusted to his care immediately on its 
reaching its destination. But whether the real owner in the 
spirit land gives a receipt for it on delivery the Chinese do 
not seem to know. They appear to trust implicitly to the 

Vol. I.— I 




194 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BUBIAL. 

honesty of their acquaintance or relative recently deceased. 
Each trunk intrusted to his care is generally sealed up by two 
strips of paper, which are pasted upon its top from opposite 
corners, much like the letter X. These strips or seals are usu- 
ally furnished by a priest. He also provides a strip of stamp- 
ed paper having the name of the owners of these trunks who 
are in the infernal regions. This is called the "j^roo/*," and it 
may be considered a letter to these persons on the subject of 
the articles sent. At the proper time it is burnt along with 
the trunks. 

When every thing is ready, a priest recites a particular form- 
ula, the object of which is to procure the services of a guide 
to conduct the occupant of the sedan on his journey. All the 
sons, daughters, sons-in-law and daughters-in-law, grandchil- 
dren, etc., reverently kneel down on the ground at some little 
distance from the sedan, weeping and lamenting. The priest 
now sets on fire those trunks which are most remote from the 
sedan, and, gradually coming nearer and nearer the sedan, he 
at last sets it on lire, and the effigy of the deceased, the crane 
pony, and the paper sedan are shortly turned into ashes, amid 
the loud, mournful outcries of the bereaved family. 

Among the paper trunks filled with clothing and money, 
burnt at the close of the ceremony just described, there is oft- 
entimes a small paper money-chest of a particular kind, and 
designed for a particular purpose. The Chinese differ widely 
among themselves in regard to the special object to be attain- 
ed by the burning of this trunk. 

Some say that the design of these funds is to pat/ the debts 
of the deceased, whether known or unknown to him. It is in- 
tended as a kind of squaring up of his accounts. His surviv- 
ing relatives do not wish him to be annoyed by demands pre- 
sented in the other world for the debts of this, and therefore 
furnish a box of cash for the express purpose of liquidating 
these liabilities. 

Others explain the remittance of the ready money as de- 
signed to be for the use of the animal under which the de- 
ceased was bom. It is designed to aid him in getting the 
good will of the animal in question, without which ho will be 
obliged to carry said animal after he arrives in the world of 
shadows. Now every Chinese is believed to '* belong*'^ to some 




ADVERTISEMENT OF MERITORIOUS CEREMONIES. 195 

animal, t. e., he is born in a year which is said to belong to 
some animal. For example, if born in a certain year, he will 
** belong" to the "jRo^," the rat being the horary character 
which, in the Chinese Cycle, represents that particular year. 
If bom in a certain year he will " heUyiig*'* to the ^^Buffalo^'^iox 
a similar reason. If born in a certain other year, he will ^^ ^ 
Um^'* to the Rabbit. In some way, the animal to which ho 
** belongs^^^ unless he brings a chest of money to propitiate it, 
is believed to get the possession or the control of the dead 
man on his arrival in Tartarus, making him carry it. To avoid 
such a fate for their lamented parent or relative, the members 
of his family send along a tioink full of ready cash, for the spe- 
cial benefit of the animal. How the latter manages to use the 
money so kindly or so selfishly furnished, the Chinese do not 
explain. 

Besides the meritorious services which have been now de- 
scribed or referred to, which are performed at stated periods 
during the forty-nine days, there are several others which some 
families have performed when they imagine there seems to be 
a particular necessity or propriety for them, considering the 
character of the deceased and the circumstances of his death. 
What now remains to bo mentioned are probably never per- 
formed on the forty-ninth day, but on some of the other set 
days, at the pleasure of the family. 

On all of these occasions there are severid priests employed 
to officiate. Usually, meats, vegetables, wine, and sometimes 
a vase of fresh flowers, incense, candles, and mock-money are 
provided. The ceremonies are supposed, as a whole, to con- 
stitute prayers ^^ for the diminishing of the calamities and the 
loosening of the difficulties" which the dead may have to en- 
counter in the spirit world. Tlie principle acted upon is, the 
more worship and the more ceremony performed by the living, 
the better will it bo for the dead. 

A large sheet is always put up for the inspection and infor- 
mation of the public when any expensive and attractive meri- 
torious ceremony is to bo performed. This notification or ad- 
vertisement specifics what kind of performance is to come off. 
It often gives tho name of the deceased, the names of his chil- 
dren, and tho names of the relatives who unitedly make this 
effort to secure his forgiveness, or a betterment of his condi- 
tion in tho other worM. 




196 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

The particular design of one ceremony is to free the dead 
from any calamity which might be sent on him as a punish- 
ment/or using in any way too much water in this world, or 
for using it in an unworthy manner. Such a course offends 
the god of water, and he very properly punishes the sin in 
the other world. A certain classic or formula, relating to this 
subject, is chanted. The recitation of this particular formula 
makes the distinction between this and other ceremonies per- 
formed on the death of relatives. If children, on the death of 
a parent, do not have this ceremony performed, they are liable 
to be charged with a deficiency of filial regard for th« happi- 
ness of him who, perhaps, is suffering from the cause above 
specified. 

There is a ceremony when a book said to contain the names 
of one thousand Buddhas is repeated by each Buddhist priest 
employed. All their voices blend together as they chant it in 
concert. The object of this ceremony is the general one of 
engaging the friendly and the powerful offices of the Buddhas 
whose names are chanted to ^^'ferry^'^ the spirit of the dead 
across. There is no meat used on the occasion. All the of- 
ferings designed for food consist of vegetables, as the Buddhist 
priests are pledged by vow only to the eating of vegetable 
food. There is no other essential difference between this and 
other ceremonies. 

A ceremony called the " Bloody-Pond" ceremony, as some 
explain, relates to married women who die, it may be, several 
years subsequent to their having children ; others assert it re- 
fers to those women who, having borne a girl, die within four 
months, or who, having borne a boy, die within one month. 
These say that a woman's unclean ness, in the case of having 
given birth to a boy, extends only to one month, while it ex- 
tends to four months in case of having given birth to a girl. 
The Chinese believe that in the infernal regions there is a 
pond of blood, into which deceased married women generally, 
or, as some say, women who have died in childbirth, or within 
one or four months after confinement, are plunged on their en- 
trance into that world. Virgins, and married women who 
have never borne children, on their death never have this cer- 
emony performed on their account. The object of the Bloody- 
Pond ceremony is to save the spirit of a deceased mother from 




PROPITIATING THE TEN KINGS OF HELL. 197 

the punishment of the Bloody Pond. Sometimes it is per- 
formed several times on the death of the mother of a family 
of children. This is one way by which they manifest their 
fiUal love for the deceased. The classic or formula, which is 
supposed to be peculiarly adapted to securing the benevolent 
end desired, is repeated by each priest employed. Either 
Tauist or Buddhist priests may officiate at this ceremony, at 
the pleasure of the family. The very poor can not afford the 
expense, but the rich often make a great display on the death 
of their mother, by having the ceremony now referred to per- 
formed several times, or at least once on a grand scale, before 
the conclusion of their public mourning ceremonies. 

A ceremony designed to propitiate the good-will of the ten 
kings who rule over the affiiirs in the lower world is often 
performed for the benefit of either parent. It is believed that 
the punishment of the dead may be alleviated by obtaining 
favor with the governors of the ten departments of hell, 
through which they will be obliged to pass, and in which they 
will be obliged to suffer punishment for the sins of this life. 
K these kings are willing, they are supposed to have the pre- 
rogative, or, at least, to be in the practice of punishing the 
dead but slightly, imposing on him such penalties as are easi- 
ly borne, or even of passing him along through the different 
departments without any penalty. Thus do this people fancy 
they can bribe the rulers of hell ! 

Let the above suffice to give an insight into the practices 
and the opinions of this people in regard to the condition of 
their beloved friends and relatives after death. Surely no 
Christian, after reading these statements, will say, " TJie Chi- 
nese are well enough off without the Bible; let them alone I 
They do not need any other religion than what they already 
have:' 




198 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BUBIAL. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL — Continued. 

Singular or Superstitious Customs relating to Burial: Blood Burial. — The 
Coffin sometimes deposited temporarily in a Dead-house. — Ceremonies 
of Depositing it there. — Order of Funeral Processions. — ''Bupng the 
Road." — ** Gods Opening the Road.** — "Arranging a Sacrifice" in Honor 
of the Dead in the Street or at the House. — Lowering the Coffin into the 
Grave. — Eating certain Cakes as an Omen of Good. — Offerings to the 
Gods of the Hills, and to the Spirits of Beggars and Lepers in Hell* — 
Conclusion of the Ceremonies at the Grave. — Tablet of the Dead carried 
Home. — The "Dotting" of the Tablet. — Miscellaneous Practices and Opin- 
ions relating to the Dead: Badges of Mourning worn by Widows and Wid- 
owers. — White "Cloths to cry with." — Presents to counteract nnlncky 
Influences. — Grave-clothes sometimes only basted or pasted together. — 
Begetting Children during the Period of Mourning unlawful. — Solicitude 
relating to Coffins. — Incidents. — Purchase of Coffins during Lifetime.— 
Preparing for Death. — The golden Lad and the gcmmeous Lass. — Use 
of a white Cock on the Coffin. 

Singtdar or Superstitious Customs relating to Burial, 
The very poor are often obliged, in order to save expense, 
or for other reasons, to bury their dead in the course of a few 
days after death. This is likened to a mandarin who proceeds 
to his official trust by the swiftest post, without the usual de- 
lays, receptions of honor, etc., en route. It is considered dis- 
reputable, and a mark of the very lowest poverty, or that the 
dead is destitute of friends and relatives who take an interest 
in the honor of the family. 

If the body is buried in the course of a few days aft^r 
death, it is called " blood hurial^^^ or a burial of blood. The 
corpse is believed to have blood in it, or the blood has not 
yet dried up. ^^ Blood buriaV^ is used as a term of reproach, 
and refers to hasty burials, preceded by few mourning solem- 
nities. 

On the decease of the paternal head of the family, it be- 
comes the duty of the sons to procure a burial-place, unless it 
has been previously purchased, sufficiently large to contain at 




USING TWO LANTERNS AS OMENS OF GOOD. 199 

least two graves, side by side. The coffin of the father must 
be placed on the left side, leaving the other for the coffin of 
the mother. If the mother die first, her coffin must be placed 
on the right side, in like manner leaving room for the father's 
coffin. It is considered a mark of want of filial respect to 
separate widely the coffins of one's parents, unless circum- 
stances make it necessary. 

If the ground for burial is not ready for any reason, and it 
is not convenient to have the coffin remain in the house until 
the burial-ground is ready, a dead-house is built or rented, in 
which the coffin is placed for the time being. In front of this 
bouse, just afler the coffin has been deposited in it, three plates 
of food are placed on the ground, and incense, candles, and 
mock-money are lighted. These are designed as offerings for 
the local deity presiding over the ground in that neighbor- 
hood. The coffin, while being conveyed to this temporary 
resting place, is followed by the dutiful sons. 

Near the coffin are arranged, as an offering to the dead, a 
bucket of boiled rice, plates of meats, fish, vegetables, and a 
kind of cakes called si, and two small lanterns, on one of which 
are the two characters which mean " hundred chiUlren^^'* and 
on the other are the two characters which mean ^^ thousand 
grandchildren.^^ While these things are being offered in sac- 
rifice to the manes of the dead, the sons kneel down and bow 
their heads toward the coffin. 

The tablet to represent the dead, and which has been lying 
on the coffin, is taken by the eldest son and placed in a sedan, 
and carried home ; or he sometimes takes it in his arms, and, 
entering a sedan, carries it carefully to his home, with the lan- 
terns above referred to hung from the poles of his sedan as an 
omen of good, they being lighted with a candle, though it be 
in midday. 

Rich families, and families which have children employed as 
mandarins, when the time has arrived to bury their dead, oft- 
en rent a kind of hearse, on which the coffin is placed and car- 
ried to the burial-ground. Before the coffin is placed upon it, 
a sacrifice is made unto it or the god which is supposed to 
control it. This procedure, it is thought, will cause the soul 
of the departed to be more peaceful en route to the grave 
than it would have been had the sacrifice not been made. It 




200 DEATH, HOUBNING, AND BURIAL. 

will help the bearers to carry it more easily. It is feared, un- 
less it is done, the god of the hearse will injure the coffin in 
some way, making it difficult and heavy to bear. Either eight, 
sixteen, or thirty-two bearers are employed in carrying this 
hearse and coffin, according to the rank or the wealth of the 
family. The hearse is trimmed with emblems of mourning, 
having strips of white cloth, which cross each other at inter- 
vals, and are tied in knots, on various parts of it. 

The order observed in funeral processions while going to 
the burying-ground, for the middle classes, is usually much like 
the following, though there is no general rule : 

First come a pair of large white lanterns and a company of 
musicians, who play at intervals along the road. 

Then comes a portable open pavilion, carried by four bear- 
ers, and containing the longevity picture and the tablet of the 
deceased, usually having burning incense in it. 

Afterward appears a man scattering at intervals along the 
street mock-money of a particular kind. 

Relatives and friends of the deceased come next, who are 
sometiinos attended by a band of music. 

Then the coffin, with its bearers often wearing white coats, 
famished at the expense of the family. 

Following the coffin are the sons of the dead, and his grand- 
sons and great-grandsons, if any, all dressed in mourning. 
These are all on foot, if able to wsJk, and weep and cry as they 
walk along. 

Next come sedans containing the females belonging to the 
family of the deceased. The occupants of the sedans endeav- 
or to keep up a continuous wailing and weeping along the 
streets. 

Finally come men with rice and food for offerings at the 
grave, incense, candles, and mock-money. Unless provision 
has been made for taking the tablet in the front of the proces- 
sion, it is carried by one of the men who are employed to car- 
ry articles for sacrificial use at the burial-place. 

As intimated above, near the front part of the funeral pro- 
cession go one or two men, who scatter along the road pieces 
of mock-money. These usually are of white and yellow col- 
ors, and about two and a half or three inches in diameter, per- 
forated in the centre. This money is designed to propitiate 




BUYINO THE BIOHT OF WAY FOB THE COFFIN. 208 

the spirits along the road which may be disposed to make dis- 
tarbance affecting the coffin or its contents. In this manner 
the right of way is secured for the remains of the dead. It 
is literally called ** buying the road^'* and the cash-money em- 
ployed are variously called the '' c(uh which buy the road^'* or 
the ^ cash which open the road,^^ The unseen spirits allow 
the coffin to pass without molestation on receiving the cash. 
Sometimes the mock-money used b not the round kind above 
described, but pieces of coarse paper in the shape of a paral- 
lelogram, some five or six inches long, each sheet being per- 
forated several times. Each sheet represents as many cash as 
it has holes. 

In the front of a funeral procession, when a high mandarin 
is carried to his burial, sometimes will be seen two immense 
likenesses of men, one dressed to represent a civil, and the oth- 
er to represent a military officer. These are very light com- 
pared with their size, being made out of bamboo splints, cov- 
ered principally with red paper. Each is borne in a horizon- 
tal position by two men. They are from ten to fifteen feet 
long, and four or five feet in diameter. These are burned in 
front of the grave. Their design is to open and clear the road 
over which the dead is about to pass. The spirits which in- 
fest the road flee when they perceive these " gods opening the 
road^^'* as they are called. Some explain their use by refer- 
ring to the practice of great mandarins while living, to have 
runners or lictors precede them and clear the way when they 
go forth into the streets. These objects are never used by the 
common people while conveying to the last resting-place the 
remains of their honored dead. 

An imposing ceremony is sometimes performed, at the ex- 
pense of personal friends or relatives, in honor of a distin- 
guished man, either a civilian or mandarin, at the house of the 
dead, and while the coffin is en route to the grave. Its distinctive 
name is " disjylaylng or arranging a sacrijice,^^ In the sum- 
mer of 1850 an illustration of this custom occurred at Fuh- 
chau on the occasion of bringing home for burial the corpse 
of ex-Commissioner Lin, of Canton opium-destroying notori- 
ety, who died while engaged in an expedition against the 
long-haired insurgents who have since attracted such atten- 
tion, but who were at that time just beginning to elicit serious 




204 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

action from the Peking government. A large namber of ta- 
bles were arranged along the sides of the street on the island 
in the river at this place. As observed at that time, the ex- 
hibition of articles offered in sacrifice to the manes of the hon- 
ored dead was far more extensive than is generally employed 
when making a sacrifice on the premises occupied by the &m- 
ily of the deceased. 

The ceremony performed at private houses is sometimes as 
follows : 

Several tables are placed in a convenient court, having three 
sizes of bowls or plates arranged upon them. These hold 
meats and vegetables. There are also sixteen saucers — four 
holding the gizzards or livers of fowls, ducks, and pigs' tongues, 
and preserved duck eggs ; four holding fruits preserved in sug- 
ar ; four holding ripe fruits of the season ; and four holding 
dried water-melon seeds. There are also arranged on the ta- 
bles either two or three, or all of the following animals, roast- 
ed or broiled whole : pig, fowl, duck, goose, or goat, and two 
or three kinds of mock-money, representing silver and gold. 
There is also a pail full of boiled rice, five bowls of five differ- 
ent colors of bread balls, each bowl having one color ; five 
bowls of five kinds of cakes, each bowl having one cake; five 
small bread images of five animals, tiger, lion, elephant, bufia- 
lo, leopard ; also two paper deer and two paper cranes. Some- 
times there are five large representatives of animals made of 
paper and bamboo splints, and placed on the ground. Fam- 
ilies which have married with the family of the deceased, on 
such occasions are expected to furnish also a quantity of mock- 
money, and some mock material for clothing, and paper imita- 
tions of a silver and a golden mountain about three feet high 
and two feet long. 

When every thing is ready, one of the principal persons 
who unite in making the sacrifice to the manes of the dead ap- 
proaches and kneels down before ^^ the place of the spirity^^ or 
before the coffin. Some of the articles are brought in and 
handed to the man on his knees, who presents it toward the 
dead. These are then put on the table standing before the 
" longevity picture." He retires, when another person takes 
his place, kneeling, receiving and presentinp^ some food. The 
food is aflerward removed and placed on the tables whence it 




LOWERING THE COFFIN INTO THE GRAVE. 205 

was takeD wheD the offerers have departed. The food, or a 
part of it, after a day or two is eaten by the family. 

A part of the sacrifice to the manes of the dead, when ar- 
ranged on tables by the roadside while the coffin is en route to 
the barying-place, is presented in a manner similar to that just 
now described by some of those who unitedly make the offer- 
ing. While the sacrifice is being presented, the procession 
stops, and the coffin is quite near those who kneel down and 
present the articles toward it. Such a sacrifice honors the 
memory and .the virtues of the departed in a manner very 
gratifying to the family of which he was once a member. 

At the appointed time fixed by a fortune-teller, the coffin is 
lowered into the grave amid the tears of the mourners. Im- 
mediately afterward, the sons of the deceased hasten to scatter 
some earth into the grave. This earth they have previously 
pat into the lap of their sackcloth mourning garments, which 
they manage to shake out so as to fall upon the coffin if possi- 
ble. After the grave has been filled up by the grave-diggers, 
the sons place in a perpendicular position their mourning 
staves on the new-made grave. 

Afterward an offering is made to the buried man in the fol- 
lowing manner : a pail full of cooked rice, with several plates 
of meats, is placed directly in front of the grave and quite near 
it. Among the eatables presented are two pails full of small 
roand white cakes, made of the flour of rice. The ceremony 
takes its name from these cakes, called in this dialect ^'dtV 

At the proper time incense and candles are lighted, and a 
quantity of mock-money is burnt, attended with the usual sol- 
emn ceremonies. At the conclusion of the sacrifice to the 
manes of the dead, the cakes are divided among his children 
and grandchildren, attending relatives and friends, not forget- 
ting the grave-diggers. Each consumes his portion of the si 
on the spot. Now the name of these cakes being in the dia- 
lect of this place the same in sound as the Chinese word for 
" time'^ or " timeSy'*^ the eating of them under such circum- 
stances is regarded as a wish that the eaters '' may have a 
good time,'*^ or that the times may be propitious and happy to 
the parties. The rice is always taken home with the other 
eatables offered in sacrifice at the grave. 

It is believed that the hills which are used as burial-places 




206 DEATH, MOUBNINa, AND BURIAL. 

Id this vicinity have gods which protect the graves of those 
who are buried there. The friends and relatives of him who 
has just been buried must pay proper reverence to these local 
divinities, or they need not expect the coffin will remain un- 
disturbed, or the spirit of its occupant rest in peace in the low- 
er regions. They therefore, before sacrificing to the dead on 
the day of burial, as well as on subsequent sacrificial occasions, 
must offer three plates of meats, wine, incense, candles, and 
various kinds of mock-money, all placed on the ground for the 
use of these local divinities. 

Usually about this time of the proceedings an offering is 
also made to the distressed and destitute spirits in the infernal 
regions, such as the spirits of lepers and beggars. The offer- 
ings consist principally of mock-clothing and mock-money of 
a very inferior kind, incense, and several plates of steamed 
cakes, of a particular sort of which these spirits are supposed 
to be very fond. Seldom is any meat offered to these unhap- 
py creatures, but sometimes a little cooked rice, and a bowl of 
vegetable soup, bean-curd, vermicelli, or a plate of bread-cakes 
or biscuits. It is a matter of wonder that the immense num- 
ber of these hungry and naked spirits, which are believed to 
swarm about on such occasions, can be contented with such 
scant and poor provisions. But, according to the general sup- 
position, they, on receiving what the friends of the dead are 
disposed to bestow upon them, allow the sacrifice to the dead 
to go on without interruption. 

These degraded spirits are objects of frequent worship at 
this place, and in much the same manner as is described above, 
both on the part of shopkeepers in the streets in front of their 
shops, and on the part of the common people in front of their 
residences. In case of a slight illness, as well as oftentimes on 
planning business affairs, if one fears the matter will not suc- 
ceed to his satisfaction, at dnsk he causes mock-clothing and 
mock-money to be burnt for the use of these ''''gentlemen of the 
lotoer regions^^ as they are often called, and also some cakes 
are presented for their entertainment. These offerings are al- 
ways placed on the ground. These imps are believed to have 
great influence in these upper regions, injuring the health of 
individuals, and causing derangement in business, etc., so that 
many are led to fear them, and to make them numerous pres- 




DOTTINO THB ANCESTRAL TABLET. 207 

ents ID order to propitiate their good offices. Health and snc- 
cess, if they are to be secured by the use of these means, are 
within the reach of most mortals. 

During the performance of sacrificing to the dead described 
above, the tablet which has been provided to represent the 
buried dead is placed in front of the headstone, or of the place 
where that is to stand. The mourners now kneel down be- 
fore it, while the eldest son, also kneeling, repeats some sen- 
tence to the purport, "ie^ the bones and the flesh return to the 
earthy and the spirit enter the tablet^^ Ever afterward this 
tablet is regarded with great interest, and especial care is ta- 
ken of it Sometimes the eldest son of the deceased enters a 
sedan and carries it home in his arms ; or it is placed in a kind 
of open pavilion, and carried back to the homestead with pomp. 
The poor carry it home frequently placed on the pail of cook- 
ed rice, which constitutes one end of the load of a servant, as 
suspended across his shoulders. A man is frequently sent with 
two small buckets to get water from the hill on which the 
grave is made, if he can find it, carrying it to the residence of 
the family. It is called " draff on water.^^ It is regarded as an 
omen of good, inasmuch as it comes from the dragon^s hill^ 
the hill where the grave has been made being referred to un- 
der this appellation, which is esteemed an auspicious term. 

The tablet, on arrival at the home of the deceased, is first 
" dotted," and then placed in the niche among the ancestral 
tablets of the family. An acting mandarin, if possible to en- 
gage the services of such a man for the occasion, is called in ; 
the higher his rank, the greater or the more aus])iciou8 the 
omen for good to the descendants of the person whose tablet 
is to bo dotted. It must be premised that, to this period, one 
of the characters which have been written upon its front is de- 
ficient in one dot or stroke. The deficient character, meaning 
" king," by receiving a small dot above the uppermost parallel 
stroke, becomes " lord," which is what is desired. The man- 
darin dotter, or the dotter whatever his rank, uses a vermilion 
pencil. The eldest son kneels down reverently before the dot- 
ter, who dots the " king" character with the required stroke, 
making it into the " lord" character. He then returns it to 
the kneeling son, who reverently places it in the niche provided, 
where it represents the dead for three or five generations. 




DEATH, MOURNIKa, AND BURIAL. 

Some refer the dotting ceremony, when performed by a 
mandarin with a vermilion pencil, to the dotting of the eyea 
of the dragon's head which has been engraven upon the front 
of the npper part of the tablet. Of course but few families 
are favored enough to have mandarins to assist in the ceremo- 
ny, whether it refers to the dotting of the eyes of the dragon, 
or the dotting of the ^^king*'^ character, as above described; 
and oftentimes it is performed with a common pencil, using 
black ink, by a member of the family or a friend, without much 
pomp or ceremony. Afler this time the tablet is regarded as 
a bona fide residence of one of the three spirits of the departed. 
The performance is considered auspicious. 

Soon after the performance of the important ceremony of 
^^ dotting the tablety^ the relatives who have been invited sit 
down to a plentiful repast, and endeavor to assuage their sor- 
row of mind by replenishing the wants of their stomachs. 

Miscellaneous Practices and Opinions relating to the Dead, 
The widow on the death of her husband is requiied to wear 
deep mourning for three years. No red may be worn. After 
the expiration of that time, when all the rest of her family 
cease wearing mourning, and when they may wear whatever 
kind of clothing and of any color they please, she, if belonging 
to the small-footed class, must on no account put on a bright 
red skirt, such as women of her class whose husbands are alive 
always wear when they appear in public or dress for com- 
pany ; she may wear blue, black, or green, but may not wear a 
red skirt. The widow of more than three years' standing, if 
belonging to the large-footed class, usually has something 
about her dress or the ornaments on her head which point her 
out as a widow. Of course, when widows marry, every trace 
or badge of widowhood is removed. The widow is required 
to take a prominent part in the weeping and wailing on re- 
ceiving the condolences of friends at the set periods of public 
mourning. The widower is not required to put on as deep 
mourning on the death of his wife as a widow is required to 
use on the death of her husband. He does not wear sackcloth 
at the stated periods of weeping and wailing, nor does he 
weep loud and long, if at all, on these occasions. At such times 
he wears a white coat over his other garments, a cap without 




PRESENnNG WHITE CLOTHS TO CRY WITH. 209 

red Ussels, and a white cotton-cloth girdle ahont his waist. 
At other times he may wear garments made of silk or satin, 
if not of a gaudy color. He is required to wear the white 
girdle for one year- If he should take another wife before the 
expiration of a year from the death of his first wife, still he 
musty as some say, wear the white girdle at the time of his 
marriage and until the end of a year. Others say he may, at 
the time of his marriage, leave off the girdle, but must resume 
it in the course of a few days, and wear it until a year is com- 
pleted. Those who marry before the expiration of a full year 
are apt to be laughed at by their neighbors and friends, be- 
oaose they do it while in mourning for deceased wives. 

If one's father or mother dies, and there is no member of 
the family living as high in rank as grandparent, it is custom- 
ary for the family to prepare strips of narrow white cloth, 
about two feet in length by one in width, measuring by the 
chopsticks used in the family. These are given to a class of 
relatives who come to weep with the family for the dead, A 
bit of red paper is pasted on each piece. A female relative 
coming to mingle her tears with the bereaved family receives 
also, in addition to the white cloth, two artificial flowers, as 
omens of good. These strips of white cloth are called clotlis 
to cry with^ and are designed to be used for wiping away the 
tears, and for holding up to the face or eyes of the weepers 
while lamenting, according to established rule. White being 
an emblem of evil or sorrow, the red paper is auspicious of 
good or joy to the possessors, indicating that they will, after 
all th^ir grief, have food and clothing in their family. These 
strips are always ti^en away by their owners when they re- 
turn home. 

When two families are living in the same house, having a 
common hall for receiving company, and a death occurs in one 
of them, the cofiin is usually placed in the hall during the pe- 
riod of mourning, and the established ceremonies are perform- 
ed there. The afflicted family purchases some artificial flow- 
ers and a set of red chopsticks, and presents them to the other 
family as an omen of good. Rich families buy also a piece of 
red cloth or red silk and present it, in order to aid in prevent- 
ing any unlucky consequences to the other family. As death 
is an inauspicious event, and the presence of the coffin contain- 




210 DEATH, MOUBNINa, AND BURIAL. 

ing the corpse in the common hall is an inauspicioas circum- 
stance, the Chinese have endeavored to dispel or prevent any 
unhappy results from reaching to the other family by the ex- 
pedient of presenting red articles. These, under the circum- 
stances, are emblematical of continued good fortune to that 
family, and are considered a surety that it will certainly have 
sufficient " food and clothing," the unlucky presence of the 
coffin, tending to the contrary result, notwithstanding. 

There are sliops where ready-made grave-clothes can be had. 
Tliese are patronized principally by the poor, who can not af- 
ford to buy good material and have it made up by tailors. 
What is strange and singular about these establishments is, 
that the caps and boots offered for sale, to be worn by the 
dead, are usually made of paper, or the very poorest silk or 
satin, and simply pasted together. At a short distance, and 
unless closely examined, they look quite well. The boots have 
soles nearly an inch thick, which are made very white by a 
kind of wash. The coats, pantaloons, skirts, etc., are also 
sometimes pasted together, or, at the best, are but slightly 
basted together. Those who purchase such grave-clothes for 
their honored dead feel that, to be considered respectable by 
their neighbors and relatives, they must conform to the absurd 
custom which requires that the dead should be clothed in sev- 
eral suits of garments when laid in the coffin, although they 
can not really affi)rd the expense of procuring respectable ma- 
terials out of which to construct these garments. Fashion, to 
save public appearances, grinds the face of the poor in China 
as hardly as it does the faces of the poor in Western lands. 
The son who should fail of dressing the dead body of his fa- 
ther with several suits would be regarded as destitute of filial 
respect ; and, instead of being laughed at should he feel him- 
self obliged to use paper boots or paper caps, and garments 
made of very inferior material, and but basted or pasted to- 
gether, he is regarded as exhibiting a dutiful and filial spirit 
provided the suits used were enough in number. Grave-clothes 
never have metal buttons, but are fastened together, if neces- 
sary, by strings. 

It is unlawful for one to beget children for three years after 
the death of his father or mother — that is, during the period 
of mourning. In case this law is violated by the members of 




SOLICITUDE ABOUT COFFINS. 211 

poor and obscure families, as a general rule, no notice would 
be taken of the circumstance by the officers of the government. 
But if it should be transgressed by mandarins, or the gentry, 
or by literary men who have acquired the privilege of wearing 
a button in their caps, denoting that they are graduates, dur- 
ing the fixed period of mourning, it is affirmed that they would 
be fined, or degraded, or punished, unless they should be able 
to succeed in bribing those who otherwise would prosecute 
them for their unfilial conduct. The violation of this law is 
regarded as proof of a want of the respect they should bear 
the memory of their deceased parent — as proof that they are 
largely destitute of the sentiments of filial piety. 

The coffin is an object of great solicitude and interest in 
China, as many instances might be adduced to show. 

Several years since, a literary person stated to a foreign 
friend his perplexity of mind concerning the best way of in- 
vesting a sum of money which ho had lately received. One 
of the ways which had suggested themselves to him was the 
purchasing of some ^^lojigevity boards^^^ as the four heavy 
pieces of timber out of which coffins principally are construct- 
ed are politely called, for the use of his aged adopted mother, 
when she should have need of such an article. The argument 
which seemed to weigh upon his mind was that, if he waited 
till she should die, he might not have sufficient ready money 
to procure the "longevity boards" and prepare them into a 
fiaitable coffin ; and, besides, such a present from her adopted 
son would be all the more acceptable to her, as it would be a 
visible and tangible proof that he was intending to honor her 
memory in a becoming manner when Providence should fur- 
nish the occasion. On the other hand were to be considered 
the discouragements to purchasing the " boards," as want of 
storeroom, danger from fire, and the expense of transportation 
in case he should be obliged to move. 

Five or six years ago, a poor old widow woman living at 
Fuhchau came into the possession of fifteen dollars ready 
money. In order to secure having available funds for pur- 
chasing a coffin, and in part for other incidental expenses 
connected with her burial, in view of the poverty of her fam- 
ily and relatives, she determined to lay out this sura in (/old 
earrings^ which she could use during her lifetime, and which 




212 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

could be at once converted into current money on her death. 
This purpose she carried out, and it proved a good invest- 
ment ; for, on her death, her earrings were sold, and the avaik 
used in the manner she designed. 

These two instances may serve as illustrations of the solid- 
tudo felt by this people to have a respectable coffin for the 
use of their honored dead, or for themselves after death. 

When the head of a family has arrived at the age of seventy 
or eighty years, if the family are in good circumstances, it is 
no uncommon occurrence to purchase materials for grave- 
clothes and for the coffin, and have them all made up in proper 
order, so as to have them in readiness when death calls away 
the beloved parent or grandparent. A piece of red silk or 
cloth is put on the coffin after it is finished, as an omen of 
good. Some red silk or cloth is also hung over the door on 
every succeeding birthday of the aged relative until he dies. 
An intercalary year is often selected ; also a feast is made on 
the occasion, relatives, intimate friends, and near neighbors of 
respectability being invited. The guests come and congratu- 
late the aged one on having these arrangements completed, 
the idea being, not may you die soon^ but may you live a 
lo7ig while. The intercalary year is an omen of good in this 
connection, because it has thirteen instead of twelve months. 
This circumstance interpreted means, 7nay your precioua life 
be lengthened out and made longer than t/ie lives of ordinary 
persons, just as this year is longer than usual. A largo piece 
of red paper is pasted on the coffin, on which is written a sen- 
tence of four characters, which may be rendered " enduring 
as the heavens, and lasting as the earths 

The expression ^^ preparing for death^^ which, as used in 
Western lands, often means to settle one's worldly affieiirs, or 
to leave them in such a state that heirs or executors can easi- 
ly arrange them, or which often means to repent of sin, leave 
off all wicked habits, and believe in the Savior, among the 
Chinese would rather be understood to indicate the import- 
ance of purchasing the coffin boards, and the materials for the 
grave-clothes, or the gathering together of a sufficient amount 
of money for these and other necessary expenses connected 
with mourning and burial, so that it would be immediately 
available on the death of a parent or grandparent. 




THE GOLDEN LAD AND THE GEMMEOUS LASS. 218 

The coilin is first made air-tight by the use of a preparation 
made of Chinese varnish and lime, or varnish and broken 
crockery pounded fine like sand. This preparation is put into 
all the cracks and crevices on the inside, together with strips 
of cloth. This, of itself, makes the coffin very tight. In ad- 
dition, sometimes it is painted or varnished on the inside, at 
the expense of the sons-in-law of the deceased. 

It ia subsequently painted several times with oil, in which 
pounded crockery, or lime, or some other substance has been 
mingled to make the coating hard and firm, always on one 
of the seventh days after the decease of its occupant. At the 
last course the coffin is covered with black varnish. The rich 
nanally have the coffin of their honored dead painted or var- 
nished on every seventh day for seven times. A coffin made 
of good material, and treated in the way just described, may 
be left unburied for a long period of years without producing 
any unpleasant effects. 

No coffin with a corpse inclosed is allowed to be carried 
into the city of Fuhchau, nor are those who die within the 
city walls allowed to be buried in the city. One ancient grave, 
said to be the grave of one of the kings or princes who reigned 
here in olden times, is pointed out in the northern part of the 
city. But nowadays the corpses of even the highest officers, 
and of the oldest and the richest families and proprietors, are 
all required to be interred outside, though there is considera- 
ble unoccupied ground on the hills and elsewhere within the 
city walls. 

When the head of a family which has been in the habit of 
having servants dies, and it is determined to have meritorious 
ceremonies pi^rformed on an extensive scale, it is also general- 
ly decided to provide the dead with a male and a female serv- 
ant to wait upon him in the other world. For this purpose 
an effigy is made to represent the dead person, which is placed 
in the chair between the table for the place of the spirit and 
the " longevity picture,^^ On one side of the chair, and near 
one end of the table, is placed a paper and bamboo representa- 
tion of a male servant, called the ^^ golden lad;^^ and on the 
other side of the chair, and near the other end of the table, is 
placed a corresponding representation of a female ser\'ant, call- 
ed ^gemmeouB lasa.^^ The servant -boy b made to hold in 





214 



DEATH, MOURNING, AND BUBIAL. 



his hands the tobacco-pipe and tobacco-pouch, while the seir- 
ant-girl is made to hold iu her hands a tea-cup and saucer, or 
some other household utensil. These are designed as slayes 
or servants to the dead man in the future world. If not pro- 
vided by his family, he, it is thought, would miss the attend- 
ance which he has always been accustomed to have in this 
world, and would be made so much the more unhappy. At 
the conclusion of the ceremonies, when the sedan, with its 
crane attached in front, is burned, these three effigies are also 
consumed. The effigy of the deceased is put in the sedan, and 
they take their departure for the world of spirits, the lad and 
lass keeping up with their master en route^ or, finding him 
after arrival, serve him according to the understanding in this 
world. 

A singular custom prevails in this part of China in connec- 
tion with transporting to the residence of his family the corpse 
of one who dies while away from home. When still at a dis- 
tance, some of the family go forth to meet the coffin, taking 
with them a livi?}g white cock, or an image of a white cockj 
made as large as life out of bamboo splint and paper, colored 
so as to appear quite natural. 




wihtk oock on a oorriK lusiku oomk onb or tiib BPiam or thb DSiO). 

The fowl, with feet tied together, is usually made to stand 
on the coffin, and the procession proceeds homeward, the cock 
retaining its position, amid the wailing of the mourners. 
Sometimes, as in the case of high officials, the cock is placed 




SUPEBSTinOUS USE OF A WHITE COCK. 215 

in a sedaD-chair, and borne home by four or eight bearers, ac- 
cording to the rank of the deceased. Sometimes it is placed 
on the top of the sedan which contains the wife of the de- 
ceased or the nearest of kin present. It is not an unusaal 
right to see a white cock perched upon the top of a cofiin or 
the top of a hearse, where he rides along with a dignified grav- 
ity, as though the procession was designed to do him honor. 
Tlie live cock retains its proper position, while the image of a 
cook most usually assumes an unnatural position, being in- 
clined backward or forward, or over to one side, or some of its 
parts become broken or bent. 

The Chinese say that one of the three spirits of the dead 
comes into the cock at the time of meeting the corpse, and that 
the spirit is thus allured back to the residence of the family. 
In case the corpse is not brought home to be buried, a letter, 
or some of the clothing recently worn by the deceased, or his 
shoes, or part of his baggage, is often sent instead. The^hite 
cock and the mourners go forth to meet the letter or relic of 
the departed, just as they would go to meet the corpse. On 
meeting the letter or the relic, the spirit passes as readily into 
the fowl as it would pass into it were the corpse itself met, 
and the spirit is conducted home just as surely. 

Occasionally along the road, and specially at the corners of 
the streets, the name of the deceased is loudly called by one 
of the procession. Sometimes two priests are engaged to beat 
.ilong the road each a brazen instrument, and the spirit is great- 
ly aided in finding its way by following their peculiar sound. 
At such times the spirit is not believed to have entered the 
cock, but simply to regard it as a kind of escort. 

After having served as a temporary residence or the escort 
of a spirit of the dead, the fowl is never killed for the table, 
but is nourished with care until it dies a natural death. The 
Chinese seldom eat the flesh of a white fowl, and many will 
not rear such a fowl on their premises. Some explain this 
fact, and the use of a purely white to the exclusion of any oth- 
er colored cock on such occasions, by saying that white is the 
badge of mourning ; others by saying that the white cock is a 
^UfirifieV or ^^ splrituaT'^ fowl. 

The Chinese can not explain the origin of this custom, or 
show its reasonableness or adaptcdness to the end desired by 





216 DEATH, MOURNING, AND BURIAL. 

any course of argament. They are remarkably fond of ao- 
counting for their established castoms by 6a3ring that ^^'ondenl- 
ly people did thus and so^ and we nowadays imitate their ea% 
ampLe,^'' They seem to think that this is a most satisfactory 
reason why they should do as they are in the habit of doing. 
They admit readily that there is no more reasonable or more 
satisfactory explanation which can be given for the observance 
of this custom than that their forefathers observed it before 
them, and that they have been taught to observe it. They 
seem not to care about investigating into the origin of their 
superstitions, nor do they leave them off when they £ul to dis- 
cern any connection between the desired object and the means 
they have been in the habit of employing to attain it. They 
will readily confess the absurdity of many customs, and even 
the utter impossibility of obtaining the object which they wish 
to obtain by the customary means ; but, on the next occasion^ 
they will perform with the greatest outward decorum and ^h 
parent sincerity what they have previously derided and pro- 
nounced irrational and useless. 




ORIGIN OF THE ANCESTRAL TABLET. 217 



CHAPTER Vm. 

ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

TW tmeutral Tablet used in private Utmses : Two Accounts of the Origin of 
the ancestral Tablet. — Size and Appearance of the Tablet erected by the 
eldest Son. — Daughters not permitted to erect a Tablet. — Description of 
general Tablet erected by any Son but the Eldest. — Worshiped for three 
or fiTe Generations. — Fixed Times for worshiping the Tablet. — Worship 
e/Aneestortt in ancestral Hails : General and branch Halls. — Permanent 
Fand for Expenses of Worship. — Six specified Times for annual Worship 
in them. — Visit to an ancestral Hall : Description of the Hall visited. — 
Coat of Erection. — Manner of Worship on the Day of the autumnal Sac- 
rifice. 

The ancestral Tablet ttsed in private Souses. 

There are at least two traditionary records relating to the 
origin of the ancestral tablet. According to one account, it 
originated during the Chan Dynasty, B.C. 350. An attendant 
on the Prince of Tsin cut a piece of flesh from his thigh and 
had it cooked for his master, who was perishing from hunger. 
He was unable to continue to travel on account of pain. He 
was aflerward burnt to death in a wood which had been set 
on fire. His prince found his corpse, and erected a tamet to 
his memory, and offered incense before it daily. 

The other account is derived from one of twenty-four popu- 
lar stories relating to filial piety. According to this story, 

Sgme time during the Han Dynasty, which ended about 25 
A.D., lived Ting Sean, who, having lost his father and his moth- 
er when he was young, never was able to obey and support 
them. While thinking of their toils and troubles on his ac- 
count, he carved images of them and served them as though 
they were alive. His wife would not reverence them. One 
day she took a needle, and in sport pricked their fingers, when 
blood ran out. Sean aflerward, on looking at the wooden 
images, observed their eyes filled with tears. Inquiring of his 
wife, he learned the circumstances of the case, and immediate- 
ly divorced her. 

In another edition of the book a different story is given of 

VoimL— K 




218 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

the treatment which the wooden images received. It is there 
said that a neighbor's wife one day desired to borrow some 
article- Sean's wife first inquired of the images in the usnal 
way. They returned for answer that they were unwilling to 
lend the article, and consequently she did not produce and 
lend it. On receiving this refusal and understanding the rear 
son, the neighbor's wife was angf y, and, taking a stick, struck 
the images, whereupon they wept. ' Sean, seeing them shed 
tears, inquired the reason. His wife having informed him of 
the circumstances, he was very much exasperated, and pro- 
ceeded not only to beat his neighbor's wife, but prosecuted 
her before the magistrate. The magistrate eulogized him for 
his filial devotion, and petitioned the emperor to bestow on 
him an honorary tablet to put up over his door. 

According to another tradition, when a little boy. Ting Sean 
was disobedient to his parents, but finally became very docile 
and filial. One day, as his mother was taking some refresh- 
ment to him while laboring in the field, she tripped her foot 
against the root of a fir-tree and fell to the ground. From the 
effects of this fall she died ; whereupon Sean took the root of 
this tree, and made some images of his parents. 

If what Ting Sean did was the origin of the ancestral tab- 
let, he doubtless did what he had no intention of doing. Ho 
easily and unwittingly effected what few are able to achieve, 
though myriads spend their lives in the pursuit — he made his 
name immortal in history — he inaugurated a custom which 
has been imitated by untold millions — that of worshiping de- 
ceased parents and ancestors under some visible and tangible 
symbol. 

Perhaps it is impossible to ascertain at the present day, and 
practically it is of little consequence, whether Ting Sean, or 
the Prince of Tsin, or some other ancient personage had the 
honor of originating the worship of a wooden tablet represent- 
ing the dead. Some one in very ancient times did certainly 
originate the tJiblet, and the worship of it by one third of the 
human race has long since been firmly and universally estab- 
lished in this empire. 

Whatever may have been the original appearance of the an- 
c;estral tablet, it now retains no resemblance to a human form. 
A minute description of its size and appearance, as fonnd to 




DSSCRIFTION OF AN ANCESTRAL TABLET. 



219 



prevail in one part of the conntry, will not be applicable to an- 
other part of the conntry. 

The ancestral 
tablet, as used at 
this place in fami- 
lies, Taries from 
eight or nine inch- 
es to about one 
foot and a half in 
height, and from 
two inches to 
three and a half 
or four inches in 
width. The best 
are made of fra- 
grant wood, parts 
of which are elab- 
orately carved, 
costing sometimes 
several dollars a 
pece; while the 
most inferior and 
the cheapest are 
made out of com- 
mon wood, and 
can be purchased 
for less than a 
quarter of a dol- 
lar. It consists 
of three pieces 
of wood, one of 
which serves as a 
pedestal, and the 
other two as up- 
right pieces. The 
tablets used in 
ancestral halls, 
where the repre- 
sentatives of a 
family clan meet 





iOtOlwrKAL TAULKT RU*m£ABNTillO OMB PKBaON. 




220 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALL& 

several times a year to worship their anoestors, and the tab- 
lets commemorating ancient sages and worthies placed in tem- 
ples, are much larger than those used in private houses, and 
often are made of only two pieces of cheap wood, viz^ a pedes- 
tal and a perpendicular piece. 

A block, varying from about four to seven inches long, and 
from about one to two and a half inches thick, and from abont 
two to three and a half inches wide, constitutes the pedestal 
of such tablets as are generally used in private dwellings. 
Into a mortise made in the upper side of this block, the two 
other pieces are inserted by tenons, the mortise and tenons fit- 
ting loosely, so as to admit of being taken apart at pleasure. 
The two upright pieces are of unequal lengths. The longer 
one is placed on the back side, and terminates on the top in a 
knob or head, which projects in front from one to three inches. 
The suifaces of these two pieces, which impinge on each oth- 
er, arc planed smooth, the front and shorter one being held in 
its place by a small tenon which enters a corresponding mor- 
tise on the under side of the projecting knob of the other. 

On the front side of the block which forms the pedestal of 
the tablet there is usually carved the image of a fabulous an- 
imal which is said to flourish only when sages appear. On 
the front of the projecting knob of the longer of the upright 
pieces is carved the head of the Chinese dragon, another fabu- 
lous animal said to have existed in ancient times. On the 
right and the left hand sides of the front of the shorter of the 
upright pieces are often engraved what are regarded as side 
views of the dragon. It is on the central portion of the same 
piece, in a straight line beginning at the top and extending 
downward, that the name of the reigning dynasty, the title (if 
it has any) of the deceased whom the tablet is designed to 
commemorate, his ancestral and his given name, are engraven, 
usually in raised characters ; sometimes, however, the inscrip- 
tion IS made with black ink, the strip on which the characters 
are written having been neatly painted or varnished. The 
name of the son who erects the tablet is also similarly carved 
or written, but in smaller characters, and is placed a little to 
the left-hand side of the bottom of the other characters. In 
the case of a tablet erected by a son in memory of his mother, 
the ancestral name of her father, that is, her maiden surname, 




1)AU0HTERS NOT PERMITTED TO ERECT A TABLET. 221 

88 well as that of her husband, is put upon the tablet. The 
engraved and the lettered portions of the tablet are generally 
overlaid with gold leaf. The other portions are often lefl of 
the natural color of the wood, though sometimes they are 
painted. The flat surfaces of the two upright pieces, where 
they impinge upon each other, are always left unpainted. The 
dates of the birth and the death of the person, and the place 
of the grave, are sometimes recorded in black ink on the inner 
surface of one of the upright pieces. 

This tablet represents only one deceased individual, either 
male or female, as the case may be. The tablet for the father 
and the tablet for the mother of a family are alike in form, 
though they may vary in size. The essential difference con- 
sists in the inscription or the engraving on it. Only one tab- 
let of the above description is allowed to be erected in honor 
of one's father or mother. This belongs to the eldest son, and 
is usually kept in his house. All the ancestral tablets which 
belong to the father and mother of a family descend to the eld- 
est son, and become his property on their death. When the 
eldest son dies, they fall into the hands of his son, if he has 
any. Almost invariably, when the eldest son, if of adult age 
and married, has no son, he adopts some child of his younger 
brothers, or some other relation, in order to keep up the fam- 
ily name and retain the tablets in his own family line. 

Daughters are not allowed a tablet of either parent. After 
marriage they worship the tablets belonging to their husband^s 
family. On their death their tablet is placed among the tab- 
lets which belong to their eldest sons, never among those which 
are worshiped in the families of their own brothers. 

As long as the sons of a family live together, they worship 
the tablet erected by the eldest son. When, however, the 
family breaks up, and the younger sons, receiving their share 
of the patrimony, separate to live each by himself, if married, 
they may each erect a kind of tablet, quite different in several 
respects from the tablet already described. The tablet which 
the younger brothers may provide for their own use consists 
of a single piece of board, from ten to twelve inches square, 
fitted into a frame a few inches high. It is then painted or 
Tarnished either black or reddish. In the middle of the front 
side, reaching from the top toward the bottom, there is a sen- 




222 ANCESTBAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

tence written or engraved, and frequently gilded, which indi- 
cates that the tablet represents or commemorates all the an- 
cestors of the family of a certain surname. The person who 
erects it also, if he pleases, has recorded on it the names of his 
male ancestors, beginning with his father, back to three or five 
generations, on the nght of the inscription in the centre, his 
father's name occupying the place nearest the right edge of 
the board. In similar manner, he may have recorded on the 
left of the centre the surnames of his maternal ancestors, both 
before and after their marriage, back to the same number of 
generations, commencing with his mother's surname, which is 
placed nearest the left edge of the tablet. The names of his 
grandfather and of his grandmother are respectively placed 
next to the names of their father and mother, and so on ; the 
more remote the ancestor, the nearer his or her name comes 
to the centre of the board. This kind of tablet, as will be 
readily understood, is a general tablet for all his ancestors in 
common, and for his ancestors of three or five generations in 
particular, as he chooses to inscribe the names for three or five 
generations. At his death this descends to his eldest son, who 
has the exclusive right to erect the other kind of tablet to the 
memory of his father and mother, while his younger sons may 
each erect the general tablet to the memory of their father and 
mother, and of their more remote ancestors having the family 
surname. 

The ancestral tablet representing one's father or mother is 
usually worshiped only for three or five generations. During 
this period it is preserved with care in a portable niche or 
shrine, made in the general shape of a house, but only a few 
feet square. If unable to procure such a niche, the tablets are 
simply arranged on a shelf or table. If the family has a niche, 
it is usually placed in some of the inner apartments, where 
easy access can be had to it for the purpose of performing the 
customary worship before it. The niche is designed to hold 
all the tablets worshiped by the family and belonging to it, 
unless they are too numerous. After the third or the fifth 
generation has passed away, the tablets which represent it are 
sometimes taken away and buried in or near the graves of the 
persons they represent, or they may be burned to ashes ; at 
least they must be removed from the niche, to furnish room 



lUKNIB OF WOBSHIFINO THE TABLET. 



228 



for the tablets representing the individuals of a less remote 
period, every generation furnishing two tablets. 

The ancestral tablets of both kinds are worshiped at fixed 
tiroes or occasions, and according to certain established forms. 




wcHHuiriMU Tiie ▲>cb«tkai. TAULirr im ith mciik. 



On the first and fifteenth of every month, tapers or candles 
aod incense are retnilarly burned before them. Two tapers 

and three 8tiek« of incense 
ire li^lited in the morning. 
The ineeuHO is permitted to 
bum up, but the tapers oft- 
entimes are put out when 
about half coui^umed. At 
evening the tapers are ro- 
lightc<l, and three more in- 





224 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

cense sticks are burnt. For use in worshiping the tablets, a 
censer to hold the incense is placed before them, and a pair of 
candlesticks is arranged one on each side of the censer, to hold 
the candles. 

On the recurrence of the anniversary of the birthday of any 
living member of the family, or on the occasion of preparing 
cards to be used in negotiating for the engagement in mar- 
riage of any of the family, as well as on the evening of the 
twenty-ninth of the first month of the year, tapers and incense 
are burned before the tablets; On the birthdays an addition- 
al offering of three bowls of a kind of vermicelli is also made. 
On the evening of the twenty-ninth day of the first month re- 
ferred to, besides the burning of tapers and incense, there are 
presented before the tablets several bowls of a black-looking, 
dirty kind of rice-soup or congee, in which have been boiled 
together various articles, such as sugar, dates, and pea-nuts. 
The offering of this soup is believed to indicate the strong fil- 
ial affection which exists in the heart of the offerer. 

On the occurrence of joyous events, or on the anniversary 
of the death of an ancestor whose tablet is among those wor- 
shiped, not only are tapers and incense burned, but offerings to 
the dead are made of several kinds of meat, as fowl, fish, and 
pork. On the fourth day of the first month of the Chinese 
year, and on the last evening of the year, some boiled rice, in 
addition to meats, tapers, and incense, is presented. On the 
festival of sweeping the tombs in the second or third month, 
besides the meats, etc., some greenish cakes, made of rice-flour, 
and colored with the juice of a certain vegetable, are offered 
to the ancestral dead. 

On the fifteenth of the first month, and at the festival of the 
Dragon Boats on the fifth day of the fifth month, and at the 
festival held about the middle of the seventh month, and at 
the festival of mid-autumn, and at a certain time in the twelfth 
month, tapers, incense, and meats are presented before them. 
The ceremony in the seventh month referred to is also attend- 
ed with the burning of mock-clothing and paper houses, t. «., 
paper on which the shape of different kinds of clothing, as 
caps, coats, shoes, etc., has been stamped ; miniature houses 
and household furniture, all made of paper, are also burned for 
the use of the depaited relative in the spirit world. These 




MAKING INQUIRIES OF THE DEAD. 225 

are believed to be changed into clothing, houses, and furniture, 
by the process of burning, owing to the potent agency of a 
charm which is also burned at the same time. 

At certain festivals in the ninth and eleventh months re- 
spectively, besides the meats, candles, and incense, there are 
also offered before the tablets a plate of a certain kind of rice 
cake and a quantity of rice balls, as a token of continued filial 
regard and remembrance. 

Whenever there is an offering of any thing besides tapers 
and incense, it is customary for all the adult male members of 
the family present to kneel down once before the tablets, and 
bow their heads toward the earth several times. They also 
on such occasions burn a quantity of paper prepared in differ- 
ent ways, which is believed to represent gold, silver, and cash. 
In this easy and cheap method are remittances supposed to be 
made for the use of deceased relatives. 

On the anniversary of the death of an ancestor, his surviving 
descendant embraces the opportunity to make of him or of 
her, as the case may be, some friendly and kind inquiries in 
regard to health or food, by dropping on the floor before the 
tablet two pieces of wood, each piece having an oval and a flat 
side. The character of the answer of the dead is supposed to 
be indicated by the relative positions of the same after reach- 
ing the floor. If the first )*eply is unfavorable, another trial is 
made, proposing perhaps a different question, and so on, until 
a satisfactory reply is given, for it would never do to desist 
inquiring so long as the reply indicated displeasure or dissat- 
isfaction on the part of the deceased. 

Worship of Ancestors in ancestral HaUs. 
Few foreign residents in China, who have not made partic- 
ular inquiries on the subject, have any adequate idea of the 
amount of ancestral worship in this empire, and of the aggre- 
gate expense of such worship. Ancestral halls may be divided 
into two classes ; those in which all the ancestors of families 
having the same ancestral name and claiming relationship are 
worshiped, and those in which the ancestors of a particular 
branoh of the families having the same ancestral. name and 
claiming near relationship are worshiped. These latter are 
called ^^ branch*^ ancestral halls. A branch hall is usually erect- 

K2 




226 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

ed at the expense of a wealthy family only when the families 
having an interest in a general hall are very numerous. This 
family and its descendants still retain their interest and rights 
in the general hall, and, at the same time, have the exclusive 
control of the interests connected with the branch hall which 
they have erected* The branch halls are less numerous in this 
part of China than the general or common halls. 

Many Chinese do not profess to have an interest in any pub- 
lic or common ancestral hall in the vicinity. These are gen- 
erally the descendants of immigrants from another part of the 
province or empire, who have not become sufficiently wealthy 
and numerous to erect an ancestral hall. All such, however, 
adhere most tenaciously to the worship of ancestral tablets in 
their houses. 

Ancestral halls differ largely in size, plan, style of finish, and 
expense. The smallest perhaps are only twenty or thirty feet 
wide by fifty or sixty leet long, and consist of only two or 
three apartments. Others are some eight or ten times as 
large, as regards width and length, having a large number of 
rooms designed for different uses. The expense, of course, is 
variable, from a few hundred dollars to several tens of thou- 
sands, including the permanent fund. 

At the time of erecting an ancestral hall, rules are made by 
the proprietor in regard to the qualifications of those who may 
have their tablets placed in it, or the sum of money which must 
be paid into the general or permanent funds of the hall, by the 
particular families to which the new tablets belong. These 
i-ules are very definite and strict, and are rigidly enforced, else 
the place devoted to holding or arranging the tablets in the 
halls would in a few generations become crowded. Some re- 
quire that a large sum of money shall be paid into the funds 
of the hall for the privilege of entering a tablet, or that all 
those who become graduates of the second literary degree, or 
officers of government above a certain rank, may have their 
tablet placed in it gratis, etc. The fact that a certain family 
does not have a member whose tablet is entitled to a place in 
the hall, or that sufficient money can not be spared for the ob- 
ject of purchasing the privilege of entering it, does not ex- 
clude the family from participating in the worship in the hall 
and in the benefits which accrue from the ^^ institution.^' 




FKBMANENT FUND CONNECTED WITH THE HALLS. 227 

In case of the entry of the tablet of a high officer, as of a 
viceroy or literary chancellor, among the tablets of his ances- 
tors in the hall, it is said that especial permission to do it is 
usually obtained from the emperor. It is not necessary to 
obtain such permission, but the family of an officer who holds 
a Tery high station takes occasion to obtain it in order to 
add increased glory to his family and to his ancestors. The 
procession got -up at the time of carrying such a tablet from 
the residence of the deceased to the ancestral hall is as large 
and splendid as possible, and is accompanied by bands of mu- 
sic. In this procession a tablet, having two words which give 
the imperial sanction, holds a prominent place. It is a high 
day with the family. As a general thing, if a certain man may 
have his tablet placed in the hall, his principal wife may have 
her tablet also placed there as a matter of course. 

The tablets placed in a hall for worship are generally at least 
two or three times as large as those made for use in private 
houses. They are oftentimes placed in a niche built expressly 
for the purpose, with divisions or shelves in it, so that they 
may not be all on the same level. At other times they are 
arranged on a platform or shelf at one end of the room devoted 
to their worship. 

At the time of erecting an ancestral hall, a permanent fund 
is established by the family or the families who unite in erect- 
ing it. The profits of this fund are designed to be used in de- 
fraying the expenses of the worship and sacrifices made at the 
appointed or customary times. This fund usually consists of 
arable land, houses, or stores, the produce or rent of which is 
appropriated to the support of the hall. Such property is in- 
alienable except by the unanimous consent of the ciders of all 
the families interested in the hall. The business of providing 
the articles used in the hall is performed by the different fam- 
ilies concerned, a year at a time, by turns, according to their 
rank as descendants, the family for a certain year receiving 
the produce of the land and houses for that year. In a year 
of plenty, it generally occurs that the avails of the fund are 
more than sufficient to meet the necessary expenses. In such 
cases, the balance unexpended becomes the private property 
of the family, or is divided among the different families, or is 
reserved for repairs, according to the rules made. In a year 




228 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLa 

of scarcity, on the other hand, it is possible that the avails of 
the fund will not be sufficient to defray the expenses, when 
the family is expected to supply the balance, or collect it from 
the other families. The annual expense for each hall vai-ies 
from several tens to several hundred dollars, graduated by the 
number of families concerned and the manner which has been 
established for the observance of the worship and the sacri- 
fices. 

The hall belonging to wealthy families usually is kept in or- 
der by some one who lives on the premises. It is the duty of 
this individual, or the keeper for the time being, to keep a rec- 
ord of the days of the death of each person whose tablet is 
placed in the hall. On the arrival of these days annually, ha 
should carefully remember the fact, and burn incense, and can- 
dles, and mock-money before the particular tablet representing 
the deceased, in the customary manner. Sometimes feasts are 
made in honor of the deceased on such anniversaries. 

Besides the observance of the anniversary of the death of 
the person to whom a tablet belongs, there are various other 
times when the dead are worslnped by their surviving de- 
scendants. These times are generally specified by the founder 
of a hall. In such a case, the descendants feel under obliga- 
tion to follow his will. If the time and the manner of wor- 
ship are not definitely fixed by the founder, those concerned in 
a particular hall soon come to agree when and how every thing 
should be done. There are some fivQ or six occasions per an- 
num when worship of the ancestral tablets in the halls at this 
place is commonly observed. 

1. On the " opening of the temple^'* generally before the third 
or fourth day of the first month of the new year. This refers 
to the first burning of incense in the hall atler the beginnuig 
of a new year. 

' 2. On the fourth or fifth day of the first month, when they 
worship in a circle. This takes its distinctive name from 
the circumstance that all the representatives of the families 
who are present stand in a circle before the tablets in the 
main room of the hall, with their faces toward the iyiside^ and, 
at a given signal, each having grasped his own hands, make 
their obeisance once, after Chinese fashion. After this they 
sit down to a feast before the tablets. 




ANNUAL WORSHIP IN ANCESTRAL HALLS. 229 

8. From the eleventh to the fifteenth of the first month, in 
the evening. At these times the halls are brilliantly lighted. 
Frequently a pair of huge candles for each of the living male 
descendants is burned before the tablets, each person some- 
times famishing his own candles. The one whoso turn it is 
to superintend the afiairs of the hall for the current year usu- 
ally has his candles placed in the centre. Mock-money is al- 
ways burnt at these times for the benefit of the dead. During 
this period, they feast together in the evening from two to 
four times' afler worshiping the tablets. This is called keep- 
ing company with the spirits of the dead by night. 

4. A sacrifice is made to the spirits of ancestors, some time 
daring the second month. This is called a " vernal aacrifice^^ 
This sacrifice consists of meats, vegetables, fruits, etc., and is 
attended with considerable show and solemnity. 

5. About the middle of the seventh month, another season 
of special worship and feasting is had before the temples in 
the halls. In addition to the mock-money consumed on other 
occasions, ^' mock-clothing'' must be burnt at this time for the 
benefit of the dead, and, among the other articles, there *must 
be provided at the feast at least two ducks and one water- 
melon. 

6. Some time in the eighth month, at the regular day, there 
occurs the " autumnal sacrifice'* to departed ancestors before 
their tablets. In connection with large and rich ancestral halls, 
this sacrifice is also attended with considerable pomp and so- 
lemnity, and is terminated by a feast, of which all the rep- 
resentatives of the families who are present partake. It is 
customary at some halls to divide the pork sacrificed among 
the representatives of the different families, which they may 
take to their homes and consume. It is a saying that the 
meat thus divided will have a tendency to procure male chil- 
dren. If, among the descendants of the ancestors worshiped, 
there are any who have attained to office, it is usual to give 
such an extra pound of this pork, which is said to aid the sons 
of such a family in becoming celebrated, and competing suc- 
cessfully at the literary examinations. At some halls there is 
also an extra season of worship at the time of the winter sol- 
stice. 

These few notes may perhaps serve to give some Western 




230 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

readers a more adequate and intelligent idea of the importanoe 
attached to ancestral worship, and the expense attending it^ 
among this people, than they were in the habit of entertaixh 
ing. Generally speaking, the customs which relate to the 
worship of the ancestral tablet in private houses and in pnblie 
halls are more fixed, and are deemed more important, than 
those customs which relate to the worship of idols and spiritSi 
especially in literary families. 

Visit to an Ancestral JBialL 

What resident in China from Western lands has not visited 
many a temple devoted to the worship of idols ? and who has 
not read descriptions of such visits ? Heathen temples ooca- 
py most conspicuous positions in this empire, and seem to in- 
vite a visit from the stranger. Ancestral halls are, however, 
erected in more retired places than temples, and, being con- 
sidered private property, are not open to the public. Henoe 
they attract less attention than do temples, and much less is 
known in relation to them. 

On the morning of September 21st I visited one of the lar- 
gest ancestral halls in this city. The invitation to visit it was 
given by one of the literati, who had an interest in it, being a 
member of one of the families descended from its proprietor. 
He was my cicero7ie during the visit, and was very ready and 
frank in replying to my inquiries, which were not remarkably 
few. 

The day fixed for the visit was the one for the " autumnal 
sacrifice." This enabled me to witness some of the prepara- 
tions for that sacrifice, though it was understood that I was 
not to remain during the attendant ceremonies. 

We arrived at the hall about 11 A.M. The outer doors 
were opened, and, being accompanied by the gentleman alluded 
to, there was no opposition made to my entrance. We found 
the tables and furniture already arranged for the approaching 
worship, though the articles to be ofiered in sacrifice to the 
spirits of the departed had not all been brought in, it being 
too early in the day. 

The premises occupied by the hall and its surroundings 
were about fifty-eight paces wide, by about three times that 
distance in length, including a ^' false hill" and an artificial fish- 




DESCRIPTION OP AN ANCEOTRAL HALL. 231 

pond. The latter was about thirty by fifty feet, and its sides 
were stoned up very substantially. The ground of the open 
courts between the buildings and in front of them was cover- 
ed with large smooth slabs of granite. There were numerous 
halls or apartments. The primary hall, being nearly in the 
centre of the premises, was the place which contained the prin- 
cipal tablets, and where the sacri6ce was to be offered and the 
worship performed. A large niche or shrine, the bottom of 
which was some three or four feet from the floor, and in which 
the tablets were standing, had in it several shelves or steps 
somewhat like a flight of stairs. On the back and highest 
step was placed a large tablet about four or five feet square, 
which represented all the ancestors of the families who were 
interested in the worship soon to be performed. In front of 
this were arranged, on various steps in the niche, nine tablets 
in all, richly gilded, and about three feet high and seven or 
eight inches wide, each representing, it was said, two individ- 
uals — ^that is, a man and his principal wife. On one of the 
lower steps was placed a kind of rack, which contained two 
small rolls. These were the " credentials" or " letters-patent" 
given to two deceased members of the families by the empe- 
ror when they were commissioned as ofiicers of government. 
In front of this shrine was a large table of a particular kind 
and shape, much used in worshiping. On this were placed a 
pair of high and large candlesticks, a large censer, and two 
high flower-vases. Near each end of this table, which was 
eight or ten feet long, were two small tables, designed to bo 
used for holding the pig and the kid which were to be offered 
up in sacrifice. The hair and the entrails of these animals 
having been removed, they were to be placed, uncooked, on 
the tables prepared — the pig in a kneeling posture, with its 
nose resting on an upright peg, and the kid in a standing pos- 
ture, resting on a frame. Two small pieces of cloth were pre- 
pared, ready to be put upon these animals after they had been 
arranged on the tables during the sacri6cial worship. In front 
of these two tables, along each side of the room, were three or 
four tables, each having a pair of candlesticks, but no censer, 
and also some singularly - shaped and odd -looking utensils, 
which were to be used during the approaching worship. 
Directly in front of the shrine, and about forty feet distant 




282 ANOSSTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLS. 

from it, was a small table placed crosswise the room, which 
held nothing but a censer. This was the place where the 
head man or chief of the families represented was to stand 
during the ceremonies. The place where the others were to 
stand and perform their part was some thirty or forty feet still 
farther from the shrine, and behind the master of the ceremo- 
nies. A large iron censer, to be used for burning mock-mon- 
ey and the silk to be offered to the spirit of the ancestors, was 
directly between the places allotted to the chief actor in the 
ceremonies and to the other company of performers. On the 
right and left sides of this room were suspended on the walls 
two large pictures of some of the ancestors of the worshipers. 
Higher up, and fastened near the roof to cross-pieces, were ar- 
ranged in this and in adjacent apartments fourteen honorary 
wooden tablets, given to members of the families concerned in 
the sacrifice as tokens of success at literary examinations. An- 
other tablet contained the names of fourteen who had become 
masters of arts. Some thirty notifications of the success of the 
same number of candidates at the lowest order of literary ex- 
aminations were carefully pasted up on the walls of an adjoin- 
ing apartment. In a part of the front portion of the premises 
were arranged, in a conspicuous position, under cover, a set of 
a certain kind of implements or portable tablets, oflentimes 
seen in mandarin or idol processions, designed to be used in 
case of the public carrying of a new tablet to the hall from the 
residence of the person it represented. 

An adjoining apartment, called the " secondary hall," con- 
tained a much smaller niche than the one in the *^ primary 
hall." This niche was designed to hold the tablets of the infe- 
rior wife or concubine of the members of the families con- 
nected with the institution, provided she was a woman of 
especial merit, such as being the mother of a son who became 
a very learned man or an officer of the government. There 
were only five or six small tablets in this hall, each represent- 
ing a secondary wife or concubine, who in some way had be- 
come famous or distinguished in her family. 

Another apartment contained one solitary tablet, designed 
to commemorate a woman whose husband died when she was 
twenty years old, leaving a son only four months old. She 
lived, it is said, for a long while, on account of extreme pover- 




IMAGES FOUND IN THE HALL VISITED. 238 

tj, on one meal a day, and thus was enabled to support and 
educate her son. He subsequently became a master of arts. 
She and her husband have a tablet erected to their memory in 
the primary hall ; but she, in consequence of her extraordinary 
virtues and merits, was adjudged the additional right and hon- 
or of a tablet erected in this ^* chaste and filial hall." Peace 
to her memory ! 

In another apartment is an image about one foot high, rep- 
resenting the local god of wealth. 

Another apartment or hall was devoted to the worship of , 
the god of literature. His idol is less than two feet high. In 
front and on the sides of it were several smaller images, asso- 
rted with the god of literature, who is worshiped by stu- 
dents as the bcstower of success in literary pursuits and hon- 
ors. Several dishes of food are placed before this image, and 
incense and candles are burned there in his honor by members 
of the various families interested in this ancestral hall, when 
they are successful at the examinations, and also at other times, 
whenever, according to the sentiments and customs of this 
people, there seems to be a call for such tokens of thanksgiv- 
ing, or of supplications. On the first and fifteenth of each Chi- 
Dese month, incense and candles are regularly burned before 
the god of literature in this particular hall, and also at the oth- 
er fixed times for sacrifice or worship before the ancestral tab- 
lets, in the hope of obtaining this god's kind ofiices in promot- 
ing the literary pursuits of the members of the families con- 
nected with it. Besides the apartments or halls already men- 
tioned, there are rooms designed for the reception and tempo- 
rary accommodation of mandarins and their retinue, for study, 
for recreation, and for various other purposes. 

This ancestral hall was built about seventy years ago by the 
great-grandfather of my informant and guide. The cost of 
the ground, buildings, furniture, walls, etc., including the per- 
manent fund for defraying the regular expenses, he aflirmed 
amounted to $300,000, which seems a very high sum, though 
every thing about the establishment was evidently made in 
very good style. The annual expense for the stated sacrifices 
and worship is about $300. During the year when my in- 
formant had the management of the hall, the second year of 
Hien Fung, the produce of the permanent fund which is in- 




234 ANCESTRAL TABLETS AND ANCESTRAL HALLa 

vested in arable land, was 1120 cwt. of paddy or nnhulled 
rice. He took 600 for his expenses and share, the rest was 
divided among the other families concerned. The hall is pot 
under the care of a male slave belonging to these families, who 
is married, and lives on the premises. 

In the afternoon after I left, according to my informant's 
account, there were offered in saciifice to the spirits of his de- 
ceased ancestors in the hall before their tablets a pig weigh- 
ing one hundred pounds, a kid, five kinds of green vegetables, 
, of each kind two heads or bunches, five kinds of fruit, and ^ve 
kinds of seeds, as rice, wheat, beans, etc Also salt, red dregs 
of wine, a piece of dried beef, bread-cakes made into five differ- 
ent shapes, a piece of raw pork, a small quantity of pigs' hair 
and of pigs' blood, ten cups of tea, and ten cups of wine. The 
vegetables and meats were all uncooked. Similar offerings 
are presented at the autumnal sacrifice from year to year. Be- 
sides these, there were also ten dishes of food already cooked, 
consisting of meats, fish, fowl, and vegetables, arranged on a 
table plaaed before the tablets. 

A professor of ceremonies was present directing the wor- 
shipers when to kneel, bow, and rise up. The faces of these 
worshipers were turned toward the tablets. The head person 
among them was a lad some six or eight years old, being the 
eldest son of the eldest son of the eldest son, etc., of the re- 
mote male ancestors from whom all of the Chinese having his 
ancestral name living in this city claim to have descended. 
He was the chief of the clan, according to the Chinese law of 
primogeniture. This lad, instructed by a professor of ceremo- 
nies, took the lead in the worship, all the rest kneeling down 
when he knelt, bowing their heads toward the ground when 
he bowed his head, and rising to their feet when he rose. The 
head man, at the proper time during the ceremony, while on 
his knees, all the rest of the worshipers being also on their 
knees, received three cups of wine, which he poured out, one 
by one, upon some straw placed in the bottom of a certain ves- 
sel. These cups were then refilled and replaced on a table be- 
fore the tablets, whence they had been taken by the professor 
of ceremonies. Before the wine was poured out, he lifted the 
cups up reverently in front of him, as though offering them to 
the spirits supposed to be in the tablets. Three bowls of veg- 




FEASTING ON THE FOOD OFFERED TO ANCESTORS. 235 

ctables were presented, as if to the spirits, in like manner, and 
then taken away and placed upon a table. The professor of 
ceremonies, at the proper time, knelt down and read, or rather 
chanted, a kind of sacrificial prayer to the spirits of the de- 
parted ancestors of the company present. They being all the 
while on their knees, then bowed down their heads toward the 
ground three times, when several rolls of coarse silk, or some- 
tJiing in imitation of silk, were burnt. The great drum was 
beaten. All rose up at the command of the professor, and left 
their allotted places. The cooked provisions intended for the 
feast were soon arranged on tables, in the proper or customary 
manner at feasts. The representatives of the families inter- 
ested in the hall took their seats, and partook of the feast pro- 
vided in the presence, as they believed, of their ancestors. 
All of them *were males, no female being allowed to be present 
or participate in the festivities or solemnities of such occasions. 
At the close of the feasting, each representative took home 
with him some of the flesh of the pig which had been offered 
whole before the tablets. 

During the progress of the worship they all knelt down five 
times, and while on their knees bowed down their heads sim- 
ultaneously three times. There was no weeping, no smiling, 
and no talking, except by the professor of ceremonies. All 
was orderly, still, solemn, and reverent. 

I have only spoken of the manner of performing ancestral 
worship as practiced at one hall on a certain occasion. The 
practice at other halls doubtless varies largely in various par- 
ticulars from what has been described. It will readily occur 
to the reader that a description of only a small part of the cer- 
emonies performed has been attempted. 




236 PRIESTS OF THE THBEE RELiaiON& 



' CHAPTER IX. 

PBIESTS OF THE THREE RELIGIONS. 

Priests of Buddhism : Baddhism not native in China. — ^Buddhist Priests lire 
in Monasteries or Temples. — Governed by Abbots. — Description of Bod- 
dhist Costume. — Monkish. — Ignore the common Duties and Relations of 
Life. — Brief Description of Worship at the Monastery on Dmm Mountain. 
— Animab kept alive there as a Work of Merit. — Do not eat animal Food. 
— How the Sect is kept up. — Singular Method of Seclusion. — Cremation 
of the Corpses of Priests. — Worship of the Three Precious Ones. — Priests 
of TatUsifi, or the Sect of Rationalism : Tauism at Fuhchau less popular 
liian Buddhism. — The Class called To-ing much like the Bifddhist Priests. 
— The Class Td-tai much unlike the Buddhist Priests.— Tauist Priests eat 
Meat as well as Vegetables. — ^T6-tai much employed in performing meri- 
torious Ceremonies. — Tauist Priests worship the Three Pure Ones.— 
Invests of Confucianism, or the Sect of the Learned: Professors of Ceremo- 
ny or Politeness. — Two Classes.— One employed by Mandarins. — ^Thc 
other employed by the common People. — Brief Notice of the Doctrines or 
Principles of Confucianism. — No Nuns at Fuhchau. 

Priests of Buddhism. 

There are three classes of native priests in China, under- 
standing the word " priest" to denote a person who oflSciates 
in religious worship. 

The Buddhist religion is not native to China. It was im- 
ported from India in the early part of the first century of the 
Christian era. It is usually regarded as more popular than 
the Tauist religion in this part of the empire. There are sev- 
eral hundred Buddhist priests in this city and its suburbs. 
The priests live in a certain kind of temples, dedicated to the 
honor and worship of Buddha, which, in English, are usually 
called monasteries^ in order to distinguish them from other 
temples. Monasteries are used and designed as residences 
for the accommodation of a large number of priests, having 
kitchen-ranges, an eating-room, sleeping apartments, and libra- 
ries. Of these monasteries there are nearly thirty in all at 
this place, including those which are located a few miles east 
and west of the city. Several of these are kept in good repair. 
Some of the temples are under the care of resident priests. 




CONCERNING BUDDHIST MONASTERIES. 239 

Three of the largest of these monasteries have each an ab- 
bot, who has great power and influence over the resident 
priests. A large and celebrated monastery, situated about six 
miles east of the city, on Drum Mountain, has between one 
and two hundred priests connected with it. The abbot is not 
always an old priest, or one of a venerable and commanding 
appearance. The abbot of the large monastery above alluded 
to, a few years ago was a young man between thirty and forty 
years of age, of a retiring disposition, and of thoughtful and 
•edate oast of countenance. The priests who are trained at 
those monasteries which have an abbot, provided they are 
furnished with a certain document or certificate of character 
signed by the abbot, are entitled to claim admittance to any 
monastery in the empire, and to receive the rites of hospitality 
for a few days gratis. 

Host of the large monasteries own land or other property, 
from wbieh rent in rice or money is annually received, thougli 
usually not sufficient to defray the current expenses of the in- 
stitution. The deficiency is made up in part by begging from 
visitors and worshipers, and by voluntary presents made by 
officers, the literary class, and the common people, either in 
consequence of some vow, or as a means of increasing their 
merits. 

A company of priests from two or throe of the largest mon- 
asteries in the vicinity parade the principal streets of the city 
and suburbs, for the purpose of begging for the su])port of 
their respective monasteries, or, in more polite terras, of re- 
cdviog the voluntary contributions of the people. Sometimes 
they appear to the number of thirty or forty in one company, 
each dressed in the peculiar costume of the Buddhist priest- 
hood, with uncovered heads, and carrying in their hands a 
kind of gong or cymbal, which they beat slowly at regular in- 
temfls. With solemn countenances, they walk leisurely along 
the public streets in single file, not nnfrequcntly in profound 
silence, though sometimes chanting or reciting together the 
name of Buddha, or some formulary. The people who hap- 
pen to be passing along the streets, and the shopkeepers, con- 
tribute what they please either in cash, rice, or oil. They are 
usually followed by men who take and carry along whatever 
is proffered. 




240 



PBUBSTS OF THE THBES RSLIQIONS. 



Both the common and the official costume of the Buddhist 
priests is quite different, as regards color and fashion, from the 
costume of the common people. The coat is distingnbhed by 
its having a very wide turn-over collar. When they officiate 
they usually dress in yellow clothing, made of cotton or silk. 
At other times they commonly wear garments of an ash color, 
though sometimes they are white. 

They shave off all the hair from 
their heads two or three times 
per month, so that their pates are 
perfectly smooth. From this dr- 
cumstance arises the expression 
^^ bald-headed asses^^^ which some- 
times is derisively applied to 
them. Many of them, perhaps all 
who are regularly educated at a 
monastery, have several places or 
spots on their pates, burnt with 
coals of fire in such a manner that 
the hair never grows there again. 
Only an abbot is entitled to per- 
form this ceremony. It is a kind 
of badge of their profession, or 
rather of their standing in it. 
They are monkish in their 
mode of life. They cast off and refuse obedience to their par- 
ents ; they never marry ; they do not acknowledge, much les» 
exhibit, any affection toward their brothers or sisters, or other 
relatives ; they possess no friendships ; they reject and disown 
any common sympathy with the rest of mankind. They pro- 
fess to ignore the constant relations and duties of life. Hence 
the common expression Chdk-kOy which is applied to them, in- 
dicating that they have lefl or gone out of the house or family. 
It is asserted that they may not sleep in a dwelling-house with 
other people. They profess to have wholly given up the 
world, and its honors, pleasures, and excitements, and to be 
supremely desirous of being entirely uninfluenced by things of 
sense, as other men are, seeking only to be absorbed into 
Buddha at death. They are solitary, unsocial, contemplative 
beings, reminding one of the monks of the Middle Ages. 




UDUUUillT PBICBT. 




CONCERNING BUDDHIST PRIESTS. 241 

They profess no allegiance to the emperor ; still, of course, 
they yield obedience to him through the civil magistrate. 
They are professedly under the control of an officer living in 
the sontheastem quarter of the city, who, according to report, 
was formerly a priest himself, and who received his title of 
office directly from Peking for the special purpose of govern- 
ing them. It is, however, found to be the fact that he has lit- 
tle or no real authority over them, except in unimportant mat- 
ters, they being more immediately under the superintendence 
and jurisdiction of the abbots of their respective monasteries. 

They spend their time variously ; much of it is occupied, 
when at their monasteries, in chanting their Buddhistic clas- 
sics, or sacred books. Many of these arc, substantially, a rep- 
resentation of the sounds of the words of the original books 
brought from India, by the use of Chinese characters, not a 
translation of the sense. They attach much merit to the rep- 
etitions of their classics, keeping an accurate account of them 
by means of a string of beads. Many of the priests are en- 
gaged more or less in conducting various religious or supersti- 
tious ceremonies in the families resident in the city and sub- 
urbs, and surrounding villages. When not thus employed, 
they return to the monastery to which they belong, unless they 
are appointed to take the charge of temples. 

In connection with the celebrated monastery lying east of 
the city there is a ponderous bell, which is struck so frequent- 
ly and so regularly that the sound is said by the priests never 
to cease day or night from one year to another. In fact, how- 
ever, the reverberation does sometimes actually cease for a 
moment or two through inadvertence on the part of the bell- 
man, who is a priest officiating pro tempore in rotation. The 
priests are unwilling to admit that the sound ever ceases. 
The bell is rung, not by any machinery which would insure 
regularity, but simply by pulling a rope which causes a sus- 
pended stick of wood to strike upon it. 

In the monastery on Drum Mountain, morning worship is 
held before daylight, and the evening worship about four or 
^ve o'clock in the afternoon. Length of service is from an 
honr to an hour and a half. All the resident priests are re- 
quired to attend and join in the service. It is held in an im- 
mense room, where are three colossal images of Buddha side 

Vol.. I — L 




242 PRIESTS OF THE THREE RELIGIONS. 

by side. The altar is furnished gaudily and costly. In front 
of it are low wooden stools and mats for the priests to use 
when kneeling. The service consists principally of a chant or 
recitation of passages from the Buddhist classics in Sanscrit, 
represented by Chinese characters used for their sound, not 
meaning. The accompaniment is not organs and viols, but 
bells, large and small, a wooden skull, and an iron urn, which 
are struck with sticks from time to time. The chant is mo- 
notonous, but sometimes musical and impressive. All the 
priests keep exact time. Part of the ceremonies consist in 
leaving their places and moving in procession, winding their 
way, back and forth, between rows of stools, preceded by a 
little bell-ringer^ all busily and solemnly chanting. Their tone 
of voice is slow, measured, and reverent. Some occasionally 
kneel down and bow their heads toward Buddha. At times 
the music and utterance increases to the very climax of rapid- 
ity, and then gradually diminishes. Repetition of Omito, the 
name of Buddha, is exceedingly numerous, and believed to be 
meritorious in a very high degree. 

A large monastery has numerous rooms devoted to specific 
uses, as a library, reception-room for officers or other distin- 
guished guests, as well as one for the common people, a large 
room for daily prayer or worship, a study-room, a place where 
living animals may be kept, etc. The animals referred to are 
not kept or reared for food, but as a work of merit. At the 
largest monastery near here there is a fish-pond, which is full 
of fine fish of various kinds, not one of which will the priests 
allow to be caught and used for food on any consideration. 
There is also a part of the establishment appropriated to the 
keeping of those animals which are supported at the expense 
of the monastery, or of the people who have placed them there 
in the fulfillment of a vow. Here may be found cattle, swine, 
goats, hens and chickens, ducks and geese. At that monas- 
tery, a few years ago, there were several tens of cattle feeding 
on the hill under the care of servants, kept there as a meritori- 
ous act. It is required that those who bring animals there to 
be nourished and kept alive should contribute money or grain, 
monthly or annually, to support them until they die a natural 
death. If domestic fowls, thus kept, lay eggs, the eggs arc 
hnriod in the ground, not used as food. Such, at least, is the 




BUDDHIST PBIESTS IK FREQUENT DEMAND. 248 

theory. When any aniraal dies, it is boried, and the donor or 
supporter of it is duly notified of the fact, if it is considered a 
case of sufficient importance. 

The priests and their servants, or the men employed to till 
the ground by the monastery, and do the heavy work about 
the establishment, professedly eat nothing but vegetable food. 
The consumption of meat of any kind, including fish, is be- 
lieved to be a sinful act. Every thing that has had animal 
life is theoretically refused as an article of food. It is gener- 
ally believed, however, among the common people, that many 
of the priests eat animal food when they can do it unobserved. 
Those connected with the larger monasteries, where there is 
an abbot, and where the laws or regulations of Buddhism are 
more generally carried out, it is thought consume comparative- 
ly little meat. Most or all of the traveling, or, as the people 
often call them, '^ loild^^ priests, probably indulge in eating 
meat quite often. The idea that water and vegetables are full 
of living animalculce^ when advanced to the Buddhist priests 
as a proof that they can not live without the destruction and 
the consumption of animate beings, is rejected by them with 
indignation, the fact being denied. 

Although they are much detested and abused by the Chi- 
nese generally as men whose example in disowning the com- 
mon and the constant relations of life it is neither reasonable 
nor even possible for all to imitate, they still are much sought 
after and employed to officiate at religious and idolatrous cer- 
emonies at all seasons of the year. They always hold them- 
selves in readiness to engage in worship in private houses 
when invited. They receive a small pittance in money for 
such services, besides being boarded at the expense of the fam- 
ily as long as the ceremonies last. They are employed prin- 
cipally to perform what are considered meritorious ceremonies 
for the benefit of persons recently deceased, or for the benefit 
of de5titute and wicked spirits in the lower regions generally, 
or for the benefit of sick or feeble persons. The merit of their 
performances is supposed to accrue to the family which em- 
ploys and pays them, or to the particular individuals on whose 
behalf the ceremonies are performed. 

They keep up their sect, in part, by the buying of boys, who 
are trained up for the priesthood. The number of boys thus 




244 PRIESTS OF THS THREE RELIGIONS. 

bought and educated must be very few, at least in this part 
of China. Some persons, who have become sick of the world 
and tired of life in consequence of the death of relatives or of 
adversity in business, instead of taking their own lives, go and 
join themselves to the priests in a monastery, who gladly re- 
ceive them, shave the hair from their heads, and instruct tbcm 
in the tenets and ceremonies of Buddhism. Few leave the 
priesthood and engage again in the common pursuits of the 
world. It is also said that some who have violated the laws 
of the empire, in order to avoid arrest and punishment, run 
away and become priests, changing their dress and shaving 
their heads, and thus escape detection. Probably only those 
whoso crimes are capital, or the punishment of whose offenses 
against the laws would be attended with great disgrace, en- 
deavor to save their lives or escape the disgrace by becoming 
priests. The prosecution for crime of those who thus become 
Buddhist priests usually ceases when that deed is accom- 
plislicd. 

There are oftentimes, in connection with the large monaster- 
ies, one or more priests who, for a specified number of years or 
of months, have no intercourse with the outward world, spend- 
ing their time entirely in their cells, usually in a sitting posture, 
very much like that assumed by tailors when at work in West- 
cm lands. Their simi>le food is brought to them, which they 
receive through a small hole in the door or in the side of their 
cells. Their thoughts are professedly fixed on Buddha, and 
their hope is to attain such a degree of blessedness, by the un- 
interrupted contemplation of him for so long a period, as to 
be absorbed into him or to become Bnddhas when they die. 
Such is the prevalent opinion of the design of their voluntary 
and self inflicted banishment from the world. It is regardetl 
very creditable to the monastery to have such devotees con- 
nected with it, as well as very meritorious in the individuals 
themselves. 

The corpses of the priests are burned soon after decease, in- 
stead of being buried in the manner common among other Chi- 
nese. I witnessed, over ten years ago, when visiting the large 
monastery to the east of the city, the burning of the body of 
:in aged priest. The corpse was placed in the coffin in a sit- 
ting posture. The coffin was made of Chinese pine boards, 




CORPSES OP BUDDHIST PRIESTS BURNED. 



245 



unplaned, being about two feet and a half or three feet square 
at the bottom, one and a half or two feet square at the top, 
and three and a half or four feet high. It was carried to the 
burning-place by two men by means of a common carrying- 
pole laid across their shoulders, the coffin being suspended be- 
tween them with ropes. Priests in their yellow robes, chant- 
ing some formula, accompanied the corpse to the place of burn- 
ing, distant a quarter of a mile from the monastery. The cof- 
fin was deposited in a small building of brick and earthen 
walls, evidently erected for the purpose of holding coffins 
while they were being consumed. A quantity of wood was 
piled on and around the coffin, and fire applied. The priests, 
standing a rod or two in front of it, commenced their chant- 
ing, and in less than half an hour the ceremony was concluded, 
and the most of the priests retired to their monastery. The 
ashes were subsequently gathered up, with the unconsumed 
bones, and placed in an earthen vessel, which was deposited 
in a building devoted to containing such mementoes or relics 
of deceased priests. 

Sang Fo^ '' the Three Precious Ones," is the title by which 




TUK TU&CB FKKGIOU8 OMXA. 



the three largo idols always found in Buddhist monasteries, 
arranged side by side, are generally known. Tliey refer to 




246 PRIESTS OF THB THREE RELIGIONa 

Buddha Past^ Buddha Present, and Buddha Future, accord- 
ing to the adopted explanation, being three different incarna- 
tions of Buddha, either already actually accomplished or pro- 
spective. 

There are three days in every year when it is said celebra- 
tions are had in honor of Buddha. The eighth day of the sec- 
ond month is distinguished as the time when he ^Mefl the 
house," or devoted himself to the life of a recluse, eschewing 
his parents and family friends, and determined to reside away 
from the abodes of mankind. This was before he became a 
god. His birthday is said to occur on the eighth day of the 
fourth month. He " became Buddha," or " attained to per- 
fection and entered nirvan" on the eighth day of the twelfth 
month. Buddha is worshiped on these days with greater 
pomp and parade than on other days. His worship in mon- 
asteries is attended with chanting the classics, and with many 
genuflections and prostrations, and in marching around and 
around, or back and forth, etc. 

Priests of Tauism, or the Sect of Rationalism. 
Judging from the number of Tauist priests and the number 
of temples which are exclusively devoted to the worship of 
gods of the Tauist sect in this place, this religion is much less 
popular than the Buddhist. There are only four or five tem- 
ples belonging to the Rationalists or Tauists, and connected 
with them arc not more than twelve or fourteen priests, prop- 
erly so called. Of them very little is known by foreigners. 
They seem to shun the acquaintance of the " stranger from 
afar" much more than do the Buddhist priests. They are 
very uncommunicative in regard to their opinions and prac- 
tices. They confine their ofiicial labors principally to the tem- 
ples where they reside, though on great and special occasions 
they sometimes ofliciate at other places. In many respects 
they are very much like the Buddhist priests. They never 
marry, nor do they confess to the relations of life, as emperor, 
parents, friends, etc. Their sect is perpetuated in much the 
same way as is the Buddhist priesthood. Tliey do not con- 
fine themselves, even in theory, strictly to a vegetable diet. 
They may eat animal food. Their dress is different from that 
of the common people. 




PECULIARITIES OP TAUIST PRIESTS. 247 

Some of their objects of worship are said by the common 
people to be the same as those which are worshiped by the 
Buddhists, but these are probably very few. Many of their 
customs and ceremonies are quite similar to those practiced 
by Buddhist priests. Buddhist and Tauist priests never offi- 
ciate together, though they are sometimes employed in differ- 
ent parts of the same premises. 

They do not shave off all of the hair from their heads, like 
the Buddhist priests, nor do they braid up what is left in a 
tress, like the common people, but coil it up on the top of the 
head after the costume of the Ming dynasty. They do not 
trim it and make it short. The Buddhist priests seem to act 
on the principle that to have any hair on the head is either a 
sin or a shame ; while the Tauist priests appear to believe that 
to have long hair on theirs is neither a shame nor a sin. Some 
Tauist priests do not shave the hair off at all, but let it all 
grow, while others shave off some on the outer edge or on the 
sides of the head, nearly as much as do the common people ; 
all, however, coil up the long hair on the top of the crown in 
a peculiar fashion, never braiding it into a cue. By the in- 
spection of the hair on the head or the absence of hair there, 
one can tell whctlier a certain person is a priest or not, and 
if a priest, to which sect, Buddhist or Tauist, he belongs. 

The above remarks relate to the class of priests called in 
this dialect To-ing, and believed to be, strictly speaking, Tau- 
ist priests. There is another class of priests called To-tai, who 
also belong to the Tauist sect. These have been frequently 
referred to as a " certain kind" of Tauist priest. They are, 
however, very different in several respects from the former, as 
well as from the Buddhist priests. 

They, except when officiating, usually wear the dress of the 
common citizen. 

They do not live in temples, but in common dwelling-houses, 
and among the common people. 

They marry and raise families, marrying and giving in mar- 
riage, after the manner of other men. 

They neither shave off all the hair on their heads, like the 
Buddhist priests, nor coil up upon their crowns what they 
have unshaven, like the other class of Tauist priests, but shave, 
comb, and braid their hair in all respects as do the common 




248 PRIESTS OF THE THBEE BELIGION& 

people, letting the cue dangle down their backs, except when 
engaged in officiating at some ceremony. At such times they 
coil up the cne on the back part of the head, or on the top of 
the head. It is usually fastened there by a wooden pin until 
the ceremony is completed. 

Their food consists of meats and vegetables, as they please. 
There is nothing in their rules to prevent the members of their 
families from engaging in business. As a general thing, how- 
ever, fathers train up their children to follow the same calling. 
Their wives and daughters take in sewing, or engage in any 
light employment which is profitable, as they please. It would 
appear that this class of priests become or continue priests in 
order to obtain a livelihood, just as other persons become doc- 
tors, fortune-tellers, musicians, etc. 

They derive their living principally from the regular pay 
they receive for the performance of the ceremonies of their 
sect. They are always boarded when employed by the people 
at their houses. The head priest, who has several apprentices 
or journeymen priests under him, usually has twice as much 
wages as any other one — that is, he counts as two. If the 
others receive seventy cash each per day for their services, be 
receives a hundred and forty. 

This class of priests is quite numerous, probably much more 
numerous than the Buddhist priests. They are also much oft- 
ener employed than are the Buddhist priests. Their services 
are very frequently in requisition, on mourning or funeral oc- 
casions, for the performance of so-called meritorious ceremo- 
nies in cases of sickness of adults or children, male or female, 
etc. On a multitude of occasions, in all seasons of the year, 
and relating to almost all subjects, they are invited to perform 
their singular, superstitious, or idolatrous ceremonies. Tlieir 
great harvest is in the seventh Chinese month, when, accord- 
ing to the current adage, " they need not buy any rice," from 
the fact that they are so constantly employed in the discharge 
of their official functions that they are not at homo during the 
day. On the birthdays of gods and goddesses, and on estab- 
lished festival days, they are also very busy, oftentimes spend- 
ing only a few minutes in each family where they have been 
invited, merely the time absolutely necessary for the custom- 
ary ringing of cymbals and the chanting of their formulas. 




DIVINITIES WORSHIPED BY TAUIST PRIESTS. 



249 



This class of priests is under the control of a head man, who 
is a priest himself, but who has been appointed to the office he 
holds by impenal authority, having a title and a button of rank. 
The mandarins, if they have occasion for the services of these 
priests in saving the sun or the moon when edipsedy or in praf/- 
ing for rain in a time of droughty etc., have only to apply to 
their head man, who has authority to insure the attendance of 
the requisite number at the time and place appointed. If any 
violate the laws of the land, they come under the control of 
the civil mandarins, their head man having little authority 
over them except as regards the exercise of their official func- 
tions as priests. 

Sang Ching^ the " Three Pure Ones," is the title of certain 
three idols found in temples belonging to the Tauist religion 
and Worshiped by Tauist priests. The images are seated side 
by side. One of them, as some explain, represents Lo-chtl, or 




TUlt TURIUB I*tJlB OMXa. 



the " Old Boy^^^ the founder of that religion. Others explain 
that the three images refer to three different incarnations of 
Lo-chQ. There is very little known among the common peo- 
ple about these divinities, and they are seldom worshiped by 
them. Tatiist priests of both classes universally worship the 
Three Pure Ones. Those priests who dwell among the people, 
the TiMai, use a paper-hanging which has pictures of them 
when called upon to perform ceremonies in private houses. 
The other class, tlio To-ing, living in temples, bum incense and 

L2 




250 PRIESTS OF THE THREE RELIGIONS. 

candles incessantly before these images in their temples. 
Some account for the origin of this trio by the saying that 
" L5-chtl in one breath was transformed into the Three Pure 
Ones." 

Priests of Confucianism^ or the Sect of the Learned, 
These have been frequently referred to under the appella- 
tions of ^^ professors of ceremony^'* or some equivalent term. 
They are of two classes — those employed by mandarins, and 
those employed by the common people. 

All the mandarins, from the district magistrate to the vice- 
roy, each have a professor of ceremony, who is paid out of the 
imperial treasury a small monthly stipend. Their official duty 
is to conduct the ceremonies which the mandarins, their mas- 
ters, are required by the emperor to have performed at certain 
temples or elsewhere, at certain times of the year. When 
they go to make offerings to heaven and earth in the spring 
and fall, or to the god of agriculture, to the god of war, to 
Confucius, etc., the mandarins are accompanied by their teach- 
ers of ceremony. It is their part to read or chant the sacrifi- 
cial or adulatory ode to the object of worship, to tell the man- 
darins when to kneel down, to knock their heads on the 
ground, and to arise to their feet. These teachers or profess- 
ors are entitled to dress like graduates of the lowest degree, 
and to wear a cap with a gold button. They are always treat- 
ed with great respect and deference by the mandarins. Ac- 
cording to established usage and law, on state occasions, while 
the mandarins represent the emperor in worshiping objects 
terrestrial or objects celestial, objects real or objects imagin- 
ary, according to imperial rescript, they must obey the in- 
structions or commands of these men. Although the manda- 
rins might know what, according to the rites, should be done, 
and the precise time of doing it, they must not presume to do 
any thing on their own responsibility. They must abide by 
the intimations of those who are called jt>ne5^5 of the Confu- 
cian religion^ or the religion of the learned, from the fact that 
they are a special class of men, who are appointed by govern- 
ment and paid out of the imperial coffers to conduct the cere- 
monies according to the established rites and laws. These 
persons profess to understand what the rites demand on all 




PBOnSSOBS OF CEBSMONT. 



251 



ooeasions of state ; hence their appointment to the office, and 
their willingness to assume the responsibilities of it. Every 
thing must be done according to the programme the rites es- 
tablish as proper, or rather as they understand the rites to es- 
tablish, considering the circumstances of the case, the rank of 
the performers, and the object designed. Those men are em- 
ployed by mandarins when performing the rites of the state 
religion. They themselves are Coufucianists, and so are the 
mandarins in Uieir private sentiments. 

There is another class of 
these professors of ceremo- 
ny who are employed occa- 
sionally by the common peo- 
ple to assist them when 
they please to invite them. 
These are not paid from the 
imperial treasury. Their 
assistance is rewarded by 
fees or wages, which vary 
according to circumstances. 
Besides their food, they ex- 
pect a liberal fee from rich 
patrons. Those who can 
afford the small additional 
expense, invite the attend- 
ance of a professor of cere- 
mony when they put on 
roomning for the decease 
of a parent, and at different periods daring tlie mourning so- 
lemnities. The common people are not obliirfd by law to use 
these directors of worship. Custom makes their employment 
repuuble and fashionable in wealthy and literary families. 
For instance, when making a sacrifice of food to the dead, if a 
teacher of the rites is at hand to instruct one when to kneel 
and when to rise up, when to b<»gin doing a particular act or 
to cease from doing it, every thing is performed with less con- 
fusion than though he were to act according to his own mem- 
ory or judgment of what was proper and becoming under the 
circumstances. It is a portion of the duties of the pntttssor 
of ceremony to read the sacrificial ode at tlm projier tinio of 




raiNrcMioB or cuiLuonr. 




252 PBISSTS OF THE THESE RELIGIONS. 

presenting a sacrifice to the manes of the dead, to instruct the 
mourning family when and how to make presents in acknowl- 
edgments of presents received from sympathizing relatives, 
etc. lie makes himself generally useful and even necessary 
for those who endeavor to carry out an undertaking according 
to the rites. 

These men, who are employed by the common people, are 
quite numerous and influential. They, as well as those who 
are employed by mandarins, are necessarily literary men, of 
respectable connections, of polite demeanor, able to assume, 
when occasion demands, a grave and dignified appearance; 
self possessed and authoritative, else they could not discharge 
to the satisfaction of their patrons the functions of their call* 
ing. 

The moral character of the priests which have been noticed 
has very little to do with their acceptabUity and popularity. 
Suavity of manners, tact in the management of business, and a 
clear understanding of the part he is to perform, have much 
more to do in forming the popular estimation in which any 
particular individual of cither class is held than does purity of 
morals or integrity of character. 

Confucianism consists of tlie religions, moral, and philosoph- 
ical tenets and doctrines which are to be found in the Chinese 
classics, the writings of the sages and the worthies of antiqui- 
ty. It numbers among its adherents and followers all the 
learned men of the country. Many of them might also bo 
considered Buddhists and Tauists, if regard be had to what 
they perform as religious acts, or permit to be performed in 
their families. Confucius admitted that he did not know much 
about the gods. In his view they were beyond the compre- 
hension of mortals, lie does not inculcate obedience to one 
who has a right to the love and the services of tlie human 
race. The obligations of man, according to him, consisted in 
doing good to his family, his friends, and his country. He ex- 
alted filial virtue above all other moral and social virtues. The 
principle of obedience to superiors extends through all his 
writings, and forms the grand basis of society and of govern- 
ment as he would have them. A child should obey its par- 
ents, a wife her husband, and a subject his prince. Tliis prin- 
ciple of subordination to superiors ho elucidated and applied 




THB DOCnUKU OF THE CHINESE CLASSICS. 268 

to the most important departments and relations of society. 
The subjects of his discourses to his followers, as well as the 
themes discussed in his books, are those which have a most 
important and practical bearing in a political and social point 
of view, and which the experience of more than twenty centu- 
ries has sliown to be singularly adapted to meet the approval 
of the Chinese mind, and to satisfy Chinese wants. 

In the Chinese classics much is said on benevolence, right- 
eousness, politeness, wisdom, and fidelity, the five cardinal vir- 
tues, which is beautiful in theory, but whiea the literati most 
woefully overlook or forget to put into practice. In general, 
it may be said that while every one nowadays applauds the 
sentiments of the ancient sages and worthies, there are few, if 
any, in China who attempt or profess to practice them. IJy 
many the literati are regarded as essentially and practically 
atheistic. One of their most learned and popular philosophers 
affirmed, in relation to the existence of gods and spirits, *' that 
sufficient knowledge was not possessed to say positively that 
they existed, and he saw no difficulty in omitting the subject 
altogether. His system is also entirely silent respecting the 
immortality of the soul, as well as future rewards and puni.sh- 
ments. Virtue is rewarded and vice punished in the individ- 
ual or his posterity on earth ; but of a separate state of exist- 
ence he or his disciples do not speak.'^ 

There are no priestesses of the Tauist religion or of Confu- 
danism in this part of China, nor are there any of the l>ud- 
dhist religion tolerated in this city and vicinity at the present 
time. Thirty odd years ago there were comparatively a large 
nQml>er of priestesses or nuns of the Buddhist religion dwell- 
ing in convents or nunneries at this place. Hut these were 
summarily suppressed about twenty-eight or thirty years ago, 
on account of the dissolute character of their inmates, by a 
provincial treasurer. About the middle of the reign of the 
grandfather of the present cnjpenT, ns the tre:isurer was pass- 
ing by a certain nunnery in the eity during the evening, his 
attention w.*is arrestetl by the ntmierous lights i^onneetinl with 
the establishment, and the manifest proof that it w.as impro|>- 
erly visite*! by men. After making ample in<|uiries in regard 
to the dinsohite life of th(» nuns, he determined to su]tpress the 
nunneries in the eitv, and oblige the inmates to marrv or leave 




254 



PBIESTS OF THB THBEE BELIGIONa 



the section of country. Very many gladly changed their state 
of single blessedness for the state of matrimony, a sufficient 
number of unmarried men being found to marry them. 




BUVDBIBT MUM WITB Ck.V AKD BOaABT. 



Buddhist nuns with shaven heads are occasionally seen in 
the streets while passing through the place to nunneries lo- 
cated in adjoining prefect urates or townships. The blow dealt 
thirty years since by the treasurer upon the nunneries situated 
in the provincial city still is felt. The buildings they occu- 
pied, a kind of temple, have been used for other purposes than 
the raising of licentious maids under the garb and name of re- 
ligious devotees. There has been since that summary act no 
successful effort made to establish and support Buddhist con- 
verts at this place. 




THE LORD OP THE PROVINCE. 265 



CHAPTER X, 

POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

Sianff Huong, **The Lord of the Province." — Image carried forth in Proces- 
sion three times per Year. — Nguk Huong Siong T&, **Thc Pearlj Empe- 
ror Supreme Ruler," principal God of the Tauist Sect. — Tat Sang, "Great 
or Univenial Mountain,** much worshiped by Tartars as well as Chinese. — 
Hieng Tieng Siong TSy Supreme Ruler of the Sombre Heavens. — Huo Sing, 
God of Fire. — Kuang Inj Huk, Goddess of Mercy. — Ma Chu, Goddess of 
Sailors. — Ling Chui Nd, commonly called " Mother,** Goddess of Midwife- 
ry and of Children. — Sang Hudng, the three Emperors. — Kuang Td, Chi- 
nese God of War. — Uong Titng Kung, King, Heavenly Prince. — Ung 
Chiang Td Kung, the God of Literature. — Nguong Sain, a God of Play- 
acting, Wrestling, and Music. — Tu Te Kung and Cfud Sing, Gods of 
Wealth. — Lu Pang, Patron Deity of those who use the Chisel and the 
Saw.— 7^ Kik Sai, God of Swine.— 7 « Chieng Kui, a God of Gamblers. 

The ancient mythology of deities worshiped by the Chi- 
nese is yet to be written in English. The present, not ancient, 
customs and sentiments relating to the most popular objects 
of worship at Fuhchau and vicinity will be briefly attempted. 

Nearly all the gods and goddesses have reputed birthdays. 
On the occurrence of such days, most of them have special 
ceremonies performed in their temples in honor of the event. 
Some of these celebrations of birthdays are very expensive and 
showy. By command of the emperor, at stated limes in the 
spring and autumn of every year, and on the first and fifteenth 
of every month, officers of government must go to the temples 
of some of the principal gods and goddesses, and burn incense 
in their honor, or make sacTifices unto them. 

Sidng Iludng^ the god called "The Lord of the Province," 
18 one of the greatest divinities worshiped here. His temple 
is the largest within the city walls, and is situated near the 
treasurer's office. It is the same in kind as the one frequent- 
ly styled by Hue the ^^ municipal palace^'* and by Dr. Wil- 
liams *^^ the palladium^ or municipal temple,'''^ It is also some- 
times called " the temple of the city wall and moat." In theo- 
ry, every provincial, every prefectural, and every district city 
has a temple devoted to this god. In the temple in this city 



256 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSEa 

are three images very like each other. The largest one repre- 
sents the god which rules over the affairs of the whole prov- 
ince in the world of spirits. The other two images represent 
the gods which regulate the affairs of the other world, which 
are connected with the two districts intersecting each other 
in this city. 

In times of great drought, and when it has not rained for 
three months, an iron chain is put around the neck of one of 
his portable images. The image is then sometimes carried 
forth in procession to the temple of the " Pearly Emperor Su- 
preme Ruler" to pray for rain. Some believe he has the gen- 
eral oversight of this world and of Hades as regards life and 
death, the rewarding of the good and the punishment of the 
wicked, reporting matters to the " Pearly Emperor," who de- 
cides authoritatively and unreversably in regard to them. 

This idol is taken out of the temple and carried in proces- 
sion three times per annum. 

At the time of the Festival of the Tombs, in the spring, it 

is carried to the western altar, outside of the western gate of 

the city, where a ceremony is performed called ^''letting out 

the apiritsy It is supposed that at this time the spirits are al- 

^ lowed to come out of Hades and visit their old homes. 

On the fifteenth day of the seventh month, the image is 
again carried to the western altar, where a ceremony is per- 
formed called " cowiting t/ie spirits^ He is expected to have 
a strict oversight of the ghosts which he has let out of Hades 
to visit the earth, and he regards it important to call over the 
roll. 

On the first day of the tenth month, his image is carried 
through the principal streets of the city out to the westerA 
altar, where a ceremony is performed called " gatheri?}^ (he 
spirits?'* The idea is, that he shuts them up on this occasion 
in Hades, after they have had a long recreation upon the earth. 

The idol is then taken within the city walls, where it passes 
the night in some house, not in the temple, as, the work of the 
god being unfinished, he can not go home to sleep. Next 
morning it is carried out into the southern suburbs, .ind pa- 
raded through all its principal streets, returning home in the 
evening. The procession on these two d.iys is very long. Sev- 
eral thousands of men take part in it as an act of homage in 




ABOUT THE PEARLY EMFEBOB SUPREME RULER. 257 

the fulfillment of a vow. It is very common for people belong- 
ing to all classes of society to bow before the image of this 
god to perform a particular act of penance, or of thanksgiving, 
in case he grants them the object of their desires, as success 
in business, the restoration to health of their sick parents, the 
living of their parents to old age, the attainment of a literary 
degree, etc. 

NgUk Huong Siong 7&, "The Pearly Emperor Supreme 
Ruler," is regarded by many as the highest divinity worshiped 
by the Chinese. Others speak of him as being the chief god 
of the Tauist pantheon. He is often referred to as the pro- 
ducer of all things and the governor of all things, seen and 
unseen, terrestrial and celestial. The common people believe 
him to receive the reports of the higher class of the gods in 
regard to the transactions done on the earth, and to examine 
into the merits and demerits of mortals, rewarding or punish- 
ing them according to their just deserts. 

His birthday, all agree, comes on the ninth day of the first 
Chinese month ; but his pedigree is enclouded in mist. While 
some native scholars affirm him to be a descendant of Tiong 
Lu, of the Ilaug dynasty, others stoutly deny it, and declare 
that it is impossible to state his age, or to ascertain the time 
when he flourished on the earth. Some even venture to affirm 
that the being really worshiped under the name and title of 
" Pearly Emperor Supreme Ruler" is identical with God, the 
only proper object of religious worship. 

In times of drought, the high mandarins go to his temple, 
bum incense, and pray for rain. Certain idols are also carried 
in procession there for the purpose of prevailing upon the Su- 
preme Ruler to send down the much-needed rain. After rain 
has fallen sufficiently, mandarins resort thither to render their 
thanksgivings. 

In strict theory, the great gods, the divinities of high rank, 
may worship him, while the gods of lower rank may not prop- 
erly worship him, in accordance with the established practice 
that only mandarins of high rank may wait upon the emperor 
in person and pay their respects, while officers of low grade 
may not approach into the emperor's presence. In fact, how- 
ever, nowadays, on his birthday, and on other days at plcastire, 
images of gods which are not of the highest class are taken up 




268 POPULAB GODS AND GODDBSSES. 

to worship him ; and some from all classes of the populace, 
in their private houses, before the heavens, very frequently 
worship him by the burning of incense and candles, accompa- 
nied with the offering of food. 

The proper manner of worshiping the Supreme Ruler con- 
sists in the use of the ^' three kneelings and nine knockings," 
or kneeling down on the ground three distinct times, each 
time bowing the head to or toward the ground thrice. Many 
of the people are not so precise and formal as this in their 
manner of worship, but perform the ceremony with more or 
less of disorder and irreverence. The common people have 
no image of this divinity in their houses when they worship 
him. 

Tdi Sang^ the divinity called " Great or Universal Moun- 
tain," whose temple is a mile and a half outside of the cast gate 
of the city, is regarded by many as the most influential and 
important god worshiped in this part of China, unless the 
" Pearly Emperor Supreme Ruler" be excepted. He is some- 
times referred to as the "emperor of the infernal regions." 
Tlie " Great Mountain'''* is spoken of as the grandson of the 
''''Supreme Ruler of the Sombre Heavens?^ 

In books which describe the Chinese Hades, the "Great 
Mountain" is represented as presiding over the seventh of the 
ten departments of that region. He is regarded as one of the 
rulers who have to do with the spirits of good and of bad men 
afler death. Sometimes he is spoken of as the one who con- 
trols life and death. 

The twenty-fourth day of the third month is spent by his dev- 
otees in carrying an image of the " Great Mountain," placed 
in a large sedan-chair, and borne by eiglit stalwart men in pro- 
cession through the principal streets of the city. The follow- 
ing day the procession passes out of the southern gate into the 
southern suburbs, which it visits and inspects in a similar way. 
A large multitude of well-dressed men engage in honoring the 
god on these days, as a kind of thanksgiving to him for bene- 
fits supposed to have been received from him in answer to spe- 
cial requests and vows. The streets are crowded on these 
days, and the people seem generally much interested and ex- 
cited. 

The birthday of the " Great Mountain," which occurs on the 




THE MANCHUS WORSHIP THE GREAT MOUNTAIN. 269 

twenty-eighth of the third month, is observed and honored by 
niaoy families with great rejoicing. Some use what is called 
** great offerings," as a whole hog, a whole goat, a whole goose, 
or duck, or chicken ; others only a hog's head, goat's head, and 
a goose, and other meats, and various dishes of vegetables, 
with immense candles, and costly incense, wine, mock silver 
and gold, etc 

The Manchn Tartars resident in the city, as well as the Chi- 
nese, worship the Great Mountain. In procession, when the 
idol is paraded in the streets, Tartars take a prominent part. 
Some seem to regard the Great Mountain as the god of the 
Tartars, probably from the fact that they take so great an in- 
terest in every thing which pertains to this divinity and his 
temple. There is no other god worshiped at this place which 
the Tartars patronize with the same unanimity, and devotion, 
and liberality as this. 

It has become a custom, for several days before the occur- 
rence of his birthday, for Manchu ladies of the first respecta- 
bility, and of high rank, to go to his temple and wait upon the 
image which represents his wife. They put one of her images 
to bed with one of his images, and properly arrange the bed- 
clothes for several successive nights. In the morning they 
bring water with which to wash her face, and during the day, 
from time to time, bring tea, tobacco, and other refreshments 
for her to use, just as though they were waiting upon a lady 
of the highest rank in the cap.icity of attendants and slaves. 
During the nights which occur while these birthday festivities 
are celebrated, these Tartar women sleep on the premises in 
apartments provided for the use of guests. 

The temple is very extensive, having many departments, or 
apartments for the worship of various subordinate divinities. 
It is kept in excellent repair. 

A singular circumstance occurred a few years ago in con- 
nection with the principal image of the " Great Mountain," 
which caused much talk at the time — his head fell suddenly 
f\rom his shoidders^just as though his neck had been broken 
off. On examination, it was found that the principal posts or 
timbers which supported his head in position had become very 
much weakened by white ants ; they became too feeble to 
sapport the head. 




260 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

The rest of the image was removed to a back part of the 
premises, and, together with his head, buried^ and a high 
mound raised over the place where his mortal reniaifia were 
interred. The occasion of this incident was made use of by 
the trHstecs of the temple to solicit the contributions of the 
deluded devotees of the god which was not able to retain his 
head upon his body, or to keep insects from committing dep- 
redations upon his frame-work, for the purpose of repairing 
the injury done and burning the old image. A large sum was 
raised without difficulty. For weeks, if not months, the tem- 
ple was frequented by visitors in view of the idoPs losing his 
head, even while workmen were employed to build up an im- 
age de novo, 

Hieng Tieng Siong Td^ the ^^ Supreme Ruler of the Sombre 
Seavens^'* is much worshiped at this place. lie is sometimes 
called the "Sombre Ruler," or the "North Ruler," and is be- 
lieved to have special control of regions connected with the 
North. The people sometimes speak of him as the " Water 
Ruler," or the governor of water, lie is believed to be able 
to prevent conflagrations, and therefore, though he is not, 
properly speaking, the god of fire, he is often worshiped in or- 
der to secure his good-will and services against the breaking 
out of a fire in certain localities. There are many images of 
him, with a representation of a tortoise and of a snake near 
his feet, and also images of thunder and of lightning, one on 
each side, erected near the entrance of alleys or of by-streets, 
under a pavilion or in a niche in the wall. The wind and the 
rain arc represented by images, and are regarded as his assist- 
ants. Being reckoned as an eater of vegetables, no meats are 
used in making ofTorings to him. 

JIno Sing^ " tlie god offire^'^ frequently styled " the Fiery 
Ruler of the Southern RcgionSy'* is much reverenced, because 
much feared. 

In very many neighborhoods, annually, in the fourth month, 
there is a ceremony peribrmcd for the ptirpose of propitiating 
the good- will and aid of the god of fire in preventing confla- 
grations in the vicinity. The Chinese have, with good reason, 
a great dread of fires. Their houses easily ignite, and as soon 
as a conflagration breaks out, fellows of the baser sort, who 
are not few, rush to the scene for the purpose of robbery and 




HARRIED WOMEN AND THE GODDESS OF MERCY. 261 

pillage. The family whose hoase is burning, if it have not 
friends numerous and promptly on the ground, fares sadly, for 
the plunderers will take clothing, furniture, and every thing 
worth carrying off. 

The owners and renters of unbumed buildings which are in 
the vicinity of a recent conflagration often invite some Tauist 
priests to go to the temple of the god of fire in their behalf, 
and perform a certain superstitious ceremony, and make an 
offering of various things before the divinity. This is designed 
as a kind of thanksgiving to the god for liis having preserved 
their property from destruction by fire. Or they employ them 
to perform the ceremony on some part of the space burned 
over, for the same purpose. Sometimes this ceremony is at- 
tended with a display of many kinds of food, wine, and tea. 
The eandlcs used on this occasion may none of them be red, 
the usual color, but all must be white, or yellow, or green ; 
red, being the color of fire, would be an inauspicious omen, 
and, if used, might have a tendency to produce a conflagration, 
which it is the object of the ceremony to prevent. 

Kuang Ing Iluky the goddess of mercy, haP various titles, 
which it is not necessary to mention. This goddess is held in 
very great veneration by this people, especially the married 
female portion. She is often represented very much as a man, 
or, as the Chinese say, half man and half female. Her images 
are sometimes made of fine white porcelain, or of brass, or of 
coarse clay. Sometimes her name or title is simply written 
on paper, and used instead of an image, and, it is believed, an- 
swers just as well. She belongs to the Buddhist pantheon. 

Married women, without exception, worship this goddess at 
their homes. If childless, they often go to some of her numer- 
ous temples and petition for a male child. This divinity is re- 
garded as a goddess of midwifery and of children. 

There are three particular days in every year when this god- 
dess is specially worshiped besides the first and the fifteenth 
of every month. These are the nineteenth day of the second 
month, the nineteenth of the sixth month, and the nineteenth 
of the ninth month. The first period is represented to be her 
birthday proper, the second period is regarded as the time 
when she became Buddha, and the third period as the time; 
when she first put on her neck the string of pearls which she 




262 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

wears as an index of her dignity. Some say that the third 
period indicates the day of her death. On these days she is 
feasted and worshiped as though they were each her natal 
day. The worshipers on these occasions eat vegetables, be- 
cause she is regarded as a vegetarian, and they present a veg- 
etable offering unto her, arranged before her image, whether 
in the temple or in private families. 
Ma Chu^ the goddess of sailors, is very extensively worshiped 




UA OUU^ TUB G0DDE8B OF BArLOSS, AMD nSB TWO A86I8TA1<T8. 

by all heathen families which have business connected with 
the navigation of rivers or the ocean. Her temples are nu- 
merous, and sometimes large and expensively built. Proba- 
bly the largest and most costly temple in the southern suburbs 
of this city was built by traders from Ningpo for the worship 
of the sailors' goddess. Traders from other prefectures or 
other provinces, who come here and live, usually build large 
exchanges or assembly-halls, where people from the same sec- 
tion of country as their builders may meet and transact busi- 
ness. These always, or with exceedingly few exceptions, have 
an image of this goddess put in them as their patron divinity. 
This goddess, it is taught, was the daughter of a man who. 




CONCERNING THE QODDESS OF SAILOBa 268 

with his SODS, was engaged on the ocean in the pnrsnit of a 
living. He was born during the Sung dynasty, and lived in 
the Iling Hua prefecture of this province. One day, while she 
was engaged in the employment of weaving in her mother's 
house, she fell asleep through excessive weariness, her head 
resting upon her loom. She dreamed that she saw her father 
and her two brothers on their separate junks in a* terrific 
storm. She exerted herself to rescue them from danger. She 
immediately seized upon the junk which contained her father 
with her mouth, while with her hands she caught a firm hold 
opon the two junks which contained her two brothers. She 
was dragging them all toward the shore, when, alas! she 
heard the voice of her mother calling to her, and as she was 
an obedient girl, forgetting that she held her father's junk 
by her mouth, she hastily opened it to answer her mother. 
She awoke in great distress, and, lo ! it was a dream, but not 
all a dream ; for in a few days the news arrived that the fleet 
in which the family junks were had encountered a dreadful 
storm, and that the one in which her father was had been 
wrecked, and he had perished, while those in which her broth- 
ers were had been signally rescued. The girl knew that she 
had been the means of the salvation of her brothers, and that 
opening her mouth to answer her mother's call was the occa- 
sion of her failure to rescue her father's vessel. 

This girl became, as the result of her dream, one of the most 
popular objects of worship in the empire. The Emperors of 
China have, at different times since her death, conferred vari- 
ous high-sounding titles upon her, some of which seem blas- 
phemous. She is called ^^Queefi of Ileaven^^ ^''Iltr Ladyship 
the Heavenly Queen y^^ or " t/te Holy Mother in the Heavens 
abcve,^'* One is often reminded by the titles given her, and 
the worship and honors paid her, of the titles which are given 
to the mother of Jesus by the authority of the Pope of Rome. 

Sailors belonging to junks which go out to sea, and those 
who work the boats on fresh- water rivers and lakes, often take 
with them some embers or ashes which they obtain from the 
censer before some popular image of the goddess. These ash- 
es they carry about their persons in a small red bag, or they 
suspend them about the junk in some convenient j)lace, or they 
put them in the censer before the image of the goddess which 




264 POPULAR QODS AND QODDBSSEa 

they worship. When there is a violent storm at sea, and there 
seems but little hope that the junk will outride it, the sailors 
all kneel down near the bow with incense in their hands, and 
call out in doleful and bitter tones upon Ma Chu to send deliv- 
erance. In case they reach port without shipwreck, they are 
bound to offer to her an especial thanksgiving of food, with or 
withouf theatrical plays in her honor, according to their vow. 
It is affirmed by sailors that sometimes, in storms, a maniiest- 
ation of this goddess becomes visible in the shape of a ball of 
fire going up or down a mast. If it is seen going up, they 
regard the circumstance as an omen of evil, as the departure 
of their goddess, and they look forward to serious disaster. 
If it seems to come down the mast, they interpret the appear- 
ance as an auspicious omen, and feel confident that they shall 
be preserved. The boatmen on the rivers and inland lakes in 
this part of China, when a very high wind arises and they are 
exposed to its violence, constantly keep calling upon Ma Chu 
to save them, crying out in piteous tones, " Grandmother Ma 
Chur ''Grandmother Ma Chur 

The sailors' goddess has two principal assistants, whose im- 
ages stand one on each side of her own in her temples. One 
is called " Favorablc-wind-ear," and is believed to have an ear 
which can catch the least breath of a favorable breeze. The 
other is called " Thousand-mile-eye," and is regarded as having 
an eye of remarkable acuteness of vision, able to perceive clear- 
ly at the distance of a thousand li. Tlie latter assistant has of 
late years, in this place, become celebrated for his skill in cur- 
ing the fever and ague, as well as for his abilities as a seaman. 
A particular temple near the water-gate of the city contains 
an image of this sailor-doctor, which is frequently visited by 
those who desire to be cured of the fever and ague. The sick 
man, afler burning some incense before the image, takes away 
with him some of the incense ashes which he finds in the ceo- 
serj and, afler arrival at his own dwelling, worships it as he 
would the image itself if he had one. Afler he recovers he 
must make the assistant god a thank-ofTcring. A kind of very 
thin pancakes must form a principal j)art. Tliis "thousand- 
mile-eycd" assistant seems to be remarkably fond of these 
cakes. Perhaps he does not like the hard fare of sailors. 

Lintj Chui A'c?, a goddess which is generally called sim|i]y 




265 

^^Motha^^ by the people, is believed by some to be the most 
frequently worshiped of all the gods and goddesses at Fuh- 
chau. She was born in the southern suburbs of this city, and 
lived in the time of the Tang dynasty. 

She seems to be worshiped in part on account of her supe- 
rior skill as a midwife. The fifteenth day of the fii^at month 
is celebrated as her birthday by married women generally by 
spreading before her imago a table of edibles, accompanied 
with the burning of mock-modcy, candles, and incense. This 
worship is a thanksgiving for her aid previously received, if 
they are already mothers. They desire also to propitiate her 
good-offices in regard to the future. 

She is also considered as a goddess of children. Children 
under sixteen years of age are regarded as under her special 
care and protection. If children are sick, their parents em- 
ploy Tauist priests in some of her temples or at their dwelling- 
houses to perform a certain popular ceremony called ^'passing 
through the door" for the benefit of their sick darlings. She 
is sometimes represented in pictures as standing, with a sword 
iu one hand and a horn in the other. With tlio sword she 
drives away enemies and evil influences, and with a blast from 
the horn she can summon to her aid hosts of heavenly assist- 
ants. She is also frequently represented in a sitting posture. 

It is taught that every kind of meats may be oflTered to her 
in sacrifice excepting diicks. It is recorded as a veritable fact 
that once, while performing some of her arts for the purpose 
of procuring rain in a time of excessive drought, standing on 
a piece of matting which was simply placed on the surface of 
the River Min, opposite this city, and just below where the 
Big Bridge is situated, she was in great peril from the mali- 
cious attempts of some evil-disposed demon in the water, which 
tried to draw the matting down into the water. A certain 
tall white devil is charged with this mischievous attempt to 
undermine the security of her footing. What the sad results 
would have been to her personally, as well as to married wom- 
en and children generally, had he succeeded, it is not necessary 
to attempt to deplore or depict ; for, as her good fate would 
have it, four ducks came boldly and bravely to her rescue. 
Each seized hold of one of the four corners of the matting 
with its bill, and held it firmly in position, so that the imp could 

Vol.. I.— :^i 




266 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

not drag it from underneath her. In view of this signal de- 
liverance in her hour of peril, she vowed, as a token of grat- 
itude^ never to partake of cluck'' a meat again. She is regard- 
ed as having no objection to ducks^ eggs. A small island in 
the river at this place, called " Duck Island," was raised from 
the bed of the river by the goddess in commemoration of her 
escape, and named after her deliverers ; so many Chinese so- 
berly and stoutly maintain. 

This goddess of midwifery and of children is assisted in the 
discharge of her onerous and numerous duties by a large staff 
of female assistants; thirty-six of them constitute one class or 
rank, an^ seventy-two another. The images of the former class 
are paraded along the right and left hand of her own image in 
temples devoted to her worship. Some of these have children 
in their arms. 

Sang Hudng^ " the three Emperors^'^ are explained to be the 
heavenly emperor, the earthly emperor, and the human empe- 
ror, viz., Fuh-Hi^ who invented the eight diagrams, and was 
the first physician whose name has been handed down to mod- 
em times ; Shin-Nilng^ who first practiced agriculture, before 
whom men lived on roots and fruits ; and Huang-Tiy who was 
the first tailor, before whose time people dressed with leaves. 
Their birthday is unknown. These gods collectively are wor- 
shiped by a very large proportion of the common people, es- 
pecially cap-makers^ shoe and hoot maker s^ doctors^ niasonSy 
ston^-ciitters, tailors, fortune-tellers^ majuifacturers and dealers 
in tinfoil, and various other classes of trades-people, artisans, 
and manufacturers. Generally speaking, each class by itself 
once per annum has theatrical exhibitions and a feast in the 
temple devoted to the worship of the three Emperors, designed 
to honor and praise these its patron divinities. 

Kuang TCi, the Chinese god of war, or the Chinese Mars, 
was a distinguished military ofllicer, as well as a " faithful and 
honest courtier," who flourished in the time of the after Han 
dynasty, during the wars which agitated the three states. He 
has had a number of honorary and pompous titles added to 
his usual title by emperors of various dynasties. One of his 
most honorable titles is that of the '-^Military Sage,^'* a title by 
which it is indicated that he occupies a position in military af 
fairs corresponding to that of Confucius in literary matters. 



CHINESE GOD OF WAR. 



267 




iA, *JlH..>L^ii. UU1> UK HAH. 



lie has now como to be spoken 
of as the patron deity of the pres- 
ent Manchu dynasty. Jlien Fung^ 
the grandfather of the present em- 
peror, added to his former appella- 
tions of dignity by decreeing him 
to be the '' Joyous Sage^ 

His image is worshiped by many 
people in their houses. He is be- 
lieved to make men courageous 
and daring in their character, and 
saccessful in their undertakings. 

Uong Tieng Kung^ a divinity, 
the translation of whose common 
name is " King, heavenly Prince," 
has an immense imago in each of 
the temples devoted to the wor- 
ship of the " Pearly Emperor Su- 
preme Ihdcr^^'^ located on the hills 
in the southern part of tlie city. 
Ho is represented with three eyes, one being situated in the 
middle of his forehead. His whiskei-s are long, and of a fiery 
red color. He holds up before him in one of his hands a whip, 
or instrument of punishment. 

Men from all classes of society, sick and poor, officers and 
populace, as well as some females, worship this three-eyed and 
red-whiskered god. The principal objects sought for are pro- 
tection in times of evil, and success in business and in study. 
Prayer to him d la Chinois is affirmed to bo very effectual in 
cases of sickness. 

Ung Chhng Td Kung^ the god of literature^ is universally 
worshiped by literary men. He is spoken of as the giver of 
ability to write prose and poems of high literary merit, and as 
the arbiter of success at the literary examinations for the dif- 
ferent degrees. 

There are two stars which the Chinese profess to have dis- 
covered to have the supervision of the affairs of this world re- 
lating to " literature and the peiicil,^ One of these, Kue Sing^ 
is said to be the fifteenth star of the twenty-eighth constelln- 
tion, answering to parts of An<lromeda and Pisces. The otli- 




268 



POPULAR QODS AND GODDESSES. 




er is commonly called the god of 
literature, Ilis image is made in 
the form of a handsome man in a 
sitting posture. The other star 
is also represented as a man, but 
extremely ugly looking, with a 
head having two long, crooked, 
horn-like projections. He is made 
to stand by one foot on the head 
of a large fish, with the other foot 
lifted up. In one hand ho holds 
an immense writing-pencil, and 
in the other a kind of cap, such 
as is worn by the chief of a class 
of graduates. His image is al- 
^^^^^ ways placed directly before the 
'?^.iiiQ/L, iroage of the other god of litera- 
^^T^^V^^^^^^- ^"^®' though he is not regarded 
'^^"'^^^^^ry<iS:^^l^^ ^s l"s assistant. 

^^ There are said to be thirty or 

forty temples hero devoted to 
the worship of these gods of literature. In large ancestral 
halls there is usually an apartment devoted to them, where the 
members of the families interested in the halls may bum in- 
cense and candles before them at the regular times of sacri- 
ficing with their ancestors, and whenever they please to wor- 
ship them. In all the governmental colleges or high schools 
they are worshiped on the firet and fifteenth of every month, 
ill the usual manner. Besides superintending affairs which re- 
late to literature, this god is believed to take cognizance of 
the merits and the demerits of men, their virtuous and their 
vicious actions. Some speak of him as the governor or the 
ruler of thunder, fire, and the pestilence. 

Kgtlong SatUy a god of play-acting, wrestling, music, etc., is 
represented to be the third son of " the Pfearly Emperor Su- 
preme Ruler." Play-actors^ both apprentices and jouniegmen^ 
worship him regularly, for the pur|)ose of securing his aid in 
enabling them to remember their parts, and to perform them 
in the established manner, and to the .icceptance of their pa- 
trons. Those who engage in sham-fights^ fencing^ terestlingy 




PATRON DEITY OP CARPENTERS. 269 

and similar athletic sports^ for recreation or amusement^ or 
who set themselves tip as teachers of these^ also worship this 
god, depending upon him for protection against making false 
movements, and against injuring the- life or maiming the per- 
son of others. By the side of his image in the temples erect- 
ed to his honor there are usually four assistants — one playing 
on the harp, and one playing on the flute ; the other two are 
in the attitude of fencing or boxing. 

lie is said to have been distinguished for his success in lit- 
erary and in military pursuits. Accordingly, he is sometimes 
represented as a literary individual — that is, his image is plain 
and simple. At other times he is represented as being half in 
a military costume and half in a literary costume — that is, one 
mde of his person is made plain, while the other half is arrayed 
in military apparel, as though it was covered with a coat of 
mail. From his head or his cap there are usually seen two 
long, curved feathers, projecting behind. 

TV/ Te Kxmg and Chai Sing^ the gods who preside over 
wealth, are worshiped generally by traders, store-keepers, 
bankers, receivers of the customs, play-actors, clerks, and un- 
derlings connected with yamuns, and by some people in their 
houses, in order to propitiate their good-will in granting suc- 
cess to their plans for the acquisition of wealth. Those who 
have shops or offices burn incense and candles regularly be- 
fore the paper inscription which represents one of the gods of 
riches, or the idol which represents the god, always found in 
their shops or offices. The first-mentioned is a kind of pe- 
nates, and is worshiped in households more frequently than the 
latter. 

Iai Pang^ the person who is now worshiped as their patron 
divinity by all who use the chisel and the saw in their profes- 
sional employments, as house-builders and carjyenters^ shij>- 
Wrights, ^nnbrellamakers, cabinet-makers, etc., in olden times 
was a man who lived in the province of Shangtung, then called 
the kingdom of L<i. His ancestral name was Pang; hence 
the designation by which he is now held in remembrance. He 
was celebrated for his skill and dexterity in the use of mechan- 
ic4il tools, some of which ho has the credit of inventing. Peo- 
ple who use the chisel and the saw, each class or profession by 
itself, meet once per annum in the temple devoted to the wor- 




270 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

ship of their patron deity, for the purpose of coDSulting to- 
gether about the interests of their trades and occupations, and 
regulating the price of their labor, or of the articles they man- 
ufacture, etc. They feast together, and witness the perform- 
ance of theatrical shows, in honor of the memory of him who 
invented the chisel and the saw, and to propitiate his good 
offices on their future efforts to use them with skill. 

Tii Kek JSaiy the god of swine, is represented as a deaf man 
standing and holding in one hand a long staff, with which he 
controls swine. He is dressed in common plain clothing. 
Various reports are in circulation among the people in regard 
to the antecedents of this god. Some say ho was, a long 
while ago, a butcher of hogs living in the city ; others affirm 
that he was simply a successful swine-raiser, who died from 
vexation because his swine suddenly died. The following sto- 
ry is related about him : 

He had a stand in the city, where he vended pork. One 
day a poor bftt talented student, who had already become a 
graduate of the first degree, went to his stand and bargained 
for a small piece of pork, which the pork-vender Avas to let him 
have on trust, as he had not the cash in hand. The seller of 
pork, soon after the departure of the student with the flesh, 
changed his mind, and concluded not to trust the poor man. 
He therefore went secretly and took away the piece of pork 
out of the pot while it was cooking. This offended the stu- 
dent, who did not forget the circumstance. Afterward he be- 
came a very distinguished scholar, and attained unto the digni- 
ty of president of one of tlie boards at Peking. Coming back 
to his native place on business, as he was passing in his sedan 
the stand of the butcher, it happened that the butcher recalled 
the circumstances, and began to tell them to the by-standers 
at the precise moment when the high mandarin was passing. 
The latter, incidentally looking out of the window of his sedan 
toward the stand, saw the butcher gesticulating, with his knife 
(while telling the story) pointed, as he imagined, toward his 
sedan, as if in the act of threatening. The mandarin, in- 
dignant that ho should be treated thus in his native town, pro- 
ceeded at once to his lodgings, and drew up a statement for 
the inspection of the emperor, telling how he saw a butcher 
threatening to kill him with his butcher-knife wliile he Mas 




271 

riding along the pablic thoroaghfare in the city, and requested 
the imperial consent and authority to decapitate him without 
trial, a3 a punishment for the insult, and a warning against 
other evil-disposed men. The emperor granted the request, 
and the man was summarily beheaded. Soon after his death 
he became an object of reverence and worship by his country- 
men. 

This god is worshiped by swine-owners, not so ipuch in or- 
der to procure his aid in raising swine as to prevail upon him 
to grant his assistance, after swine have been lost or stolen, in 
enabling them to be found. Such go to his image, and, having 
lighted some incense and caudles, rub his ears, he being deaf, 
and pat him gently on the back, in order to excite and interest 
his attention. They then tell him what they desire, stating 
the facts, as nearly as they know them, in regard to the lost 
Bwine, and ask him to start off and search for them. If they 
Buccced in finding the lost or stolen hogs, they must make a 
thank-oiforing to him in the usual way. • 

Tu Chicng Jvth\ a god of gamblers, rcj)rcsents a certain 
man who spent his time in gambling, until, having lost his 
property, he died of want. An image of him was subsequent- 
ly made, and called a ^^ devil gambling for cash.^^ Ills body 
was represented as clothed with ordinary garments, very much 
dilapidated, with his cue coiled around his head, and with a 
gambling card stuck into his hair. This god is much worshij)- 
ed by gamblers, especially when there is a kind of lottery to 
be drawn. Having lighted incense and candles before him, 
they cast lots by the use of bamboo slips, and kneel down and 
knock their heads on the ground. Some confirmed gamblers 
have an image of this divinity made for use in their homes, 
before which they pray for auspicious dreams, as aids in gam- 
bling. They prepare for having such dreams by lying down 
to sleep before the image, having first lighted some candles 
and incense. When this is done it amounts to a kind of vow. 
Sometimes tobacco and cakes are oflered in the evening. 

Sometimes the gambler takes thirty-seven slips of bamboo, 
each of which has certain characters written upon it, and ar- 
ranges them before the image, covering each with some kind 
of shell. Incense an<l candles are lighted, as before, at bed- 
thne. In the morning these slips are carefully examined to 




272 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

ascertain if any have been moved during the night. If one has 
been stirred, though but a little, the characters upon it are se- 
lected by the gambler, upon which to bet with regard to this 
lottery, under the idea that the god has caused it to be moved 
as a favor to him, indicating that these characters will be the 
lucky ones for the day. One of these thirty-seven sets of char- 
acters are selected by the lottery directors to draw the prize 
for a particular day. The gambling consists in trying to guess 
the lucky characters for any specified day. Those who guess 
them make thirty fold on their venture. Oftentimes the phrase 
^^ devil gambling for cash'^ is used to describe a man who has 
become a desperate gamester, probably from his haggard and 
poverty-stricken appearance. 




CONCERNING THB GOD OF THIEVES. 273 



CHAPTER XI. 
POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES — Continued. 

Nffu Hieng Kung, God of Thieves. — Tdh Uong Chi SU, the God of Medicine. 
— / Kuattg Tdi U6ng^ the God of Surgery. — Udk Udng^ King of the Min 
Country.— A^ Td^ the Five Rulers or Emperors. — ^Wbat they represent. 
— Called corrupt Gods. — Titled Marquis by Decree of Hien Fong. — Pro- 
cessions in Public in the fifth and sixth Months very numerous. — Unions 
or Clubs formed to honor them. — Preparations for Processions in their 
honor. — Paper Boats. — Happy Bucket. — Sailors* Society. — Paper Boat 
sent out to Sea.— Tall white Devi! and short black Devil.— Buffalo-head- 
ed, Horse-faced, Cock-headed, and Duck-mouthed Assistants. — Assistant 
carrying a Cangue, and Assistant carrying a Chain and a Lock. — ^The 
'* accomplishing*' and the ** transforming** Assistants. — Four Assistants 
representing the four Seasons. — Five Assistants representing the five Di- 
rections. — Such Processions imposing. — Itmtgea and lectures of AmtnaU 
ttorthijffd : The Monkey. — The Fox. — The Tiger (worshiped by Gam- 
blers). — The Tiger (worshiped by Mothers in Behalf of their sick Chil- 
dren). — Heavenly Dog. — A Servant of the God of Music represented by a 
Dog.— The black Monkey and the white Rabbit.— The Dragon. — ^^Vhite 
Cock. 

Ngu Ilieng Knng. — The birthday of the ^^god of thieves*^ 
falls on the seventeenth of the eighth month. Within ten or 
fifteen years, the number of the worshipers of this divinity has 
very rapidly increased in this place, and the number is now 
annually increasing. The main object of worshiping him is to 
gain tceaUh, Some sick people, travelers, and traders worship 
him. Nowadays many, who are not professed or regular 
thieves, worship him on the recurrence of his birthday. Ho 
has no temple devoted to him in the city or the suburbs, nor 
has he any image. He is worshiped under the open heavens. 
On his birthday, the Great Temple Hill in the suburbs pre- 
sents an extremely animated appearance, as very many of his 
worshipers go there to present their offerings and make theiik 
devotions. 

Sometimes the people use two characters, meaning ^^mid- 
iray iw t/te Acare;w," as- a part of his title when speaking of 
this divinity. These words imply that he dwells in the midst 

M2 




274 



POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 



of the heavens. He is believed to be unwilling to come down 
to earth, and therefore men do not prepare an image of him, 
and worship it, as they do in regard to most other objects of 
worship. 

Ngu nieng^ it is taught, was a thief himself, and was noted 

not only for his cleverness in 
stealing, but also for his filial pi- 
ety. About daybreak one morn- 
ing, it is told, he came home with 
a kettle for cooking rice, which 
he had purloined. His mother, 
kind-hearted woman that she 
was, scolded him roundly for 
stealing such an article, thus de- 
priving people of the means of 
cooking their food, and finally 
told him that, if he sold it, and 
bought rice with the money he 
got for it, she would not taste a 
mouthful of it. He asked what 
should be done with the thing. 
She advised him to return it to 
the place • whence he took it 
But he objected, saying it was 
already light, and he would cer- 
tainly be detected in the at- 
tempt. His mother replied that, 
if he would attempt to return it, the heavens undoubtedly 
would become darkened so that he could do it in safety. He 
concluded to try, and started off with the kettle, and, behold I 
just as he reached the house whence he stole it, the heavens 
all at once became very dark. He embraced the favorable 
moment and deposited the kettle on the premises, and ran off 
with all speed to report to his mother the result of his efforts. 
Ibh Uong Chii Sil, the god of medic 1716^ is said to have 
been formerly a distinguished doctor, who, after his decease, 
was deified. Now he is generally worshiped by the venders 
of medicine, and their clerks and assistants. The third d.iy 
of the third month is the time which is celebrated by them in 
his honor, making a feast, and burning incense and candles 




ooit OF xaiuvLa. 




THE DEIFIED KING OF THE MIN COUNTRY. 275 

before his image at his temple. Practicing physicians sel- 
dom engage in these celebrations, nor do they often worship 
him. 

/ Kuang Tdi Udng^ the god of surgery^ it is taught, was 
a foreigner, originally from the Loochoo Islands, who came to 
the middle kingdom and practiced surgery. Surgery, in the 
Chinese sense, relates to the cure of diseases which appear on 
the surface of the body, as sores, ulcers, cancers. As, while 
living, he was partially deaf, his devotees imagine this defect 
remains now that he is dead, though deified, and therefore are 
careful to make application by speaking into his ear, as well 
as to offer the customary incense and candles, which appeal 
more directly to his olfactories and to his eyes. 

UOk U6ng, — The temple which contains the image of an 
ancient king of the Min country, who reigned during the Ilan 
dynasty, is located on the Great Temple Hill, in the suburbs 
of this city. In a time of drought the temple is visited by 
rain-prayers in order to burn incense, hoping to procure rain 
thereby. The premises are extensive and well kept. There 
is a famous well upon them. In a time of drought, if the 
bones of a tiger should be let down into this well, called the 
^^ dragon's wcU,^^ and kept there for three days at the most, 
there will, it is sagely- aflirmed, most likely be rain soon. Tlie 
bones must be drawn up as soon as possible after the rain has 
begun to fall. The common belief is that the dragon and the 
tiger always fight when they meet, and that, when the dragon 
moves, the clouds will ascend, and rain will soon fall. The 
tiger's bones are used to stir up or excite the dragon. If he 
arouses himself and combats the tiger, alias his bones, clouds, 
it is asserted, will certainly ascend to the skies and rain will 
shortly begin to pour down. 

The image of ifbk Uong is placed on the right hand of the 
image of the goddess, his wife — that is to say, the wife is sit- 
ting in the scat of honor, according to Chinese notions. The 
occasion of the husband yielding the seat of honor to his wife, 
an exceed in gig nnimial thing in China ^ is related to have 
been the following : One day he jestingly, or rather boasting- 
ly told her that, by casting his boot into the dragon's well, 
he could bring the dragon to the surface of the water. She 
promptly denied its possibility, and, on the other hand, af 




276 POPULAB GODS AND GODDESSES. 

firmed that she, by throwing into the well one of her earrings, 
could induce the dragon to come up and get it. He promised 
her that, if she could thus draw up the dragon to the surface, 
while he could not produce the same effect by tossing bis boot 
into it, he would yield the seat of honor to her, and she should 
henceforth sit on his lefl hand. She accepted the proposition. 
He threw his boot into the well, but no dragon came to the 
surface. She disengaged one of her eamngs and tossed it into 
the well, and the dragon immediately came up for the pearl it 
contained! The dragon is famed for his extraordinary at- 
tachment to pearls, as well as for his intense hatred of the ti- 
ger. The wife of the king, after this, always sat on the left 
of her husband, who was true to his promise, and, after the 
death of each, when their images were made, her image was 
placed in the seat of honor, i. e., at his left hand. 

Ngu Tdy or the Mve Rulers, — The worship paid to the Five 
Rulers, taken in connection with the idol processions through 
the streets in honor of them, and the confused and monstrous 
notions which are prevalent relating to their powers, consti- 
tutes an idolatry of the most peculiar and extraordinary char- 
acter. 

The common people know nothing about the history of this 
form of idolatry, and the literary class profess to know but lit- 
tle. The prevalent impression appears to be that it is of com- 
paratively recent origin. During the Chau dynasty (B.C. 
1122-255), under the supervision of government, there were 
certain public processions, the object of which was to expel 
pestilences, or the demons which cause the pestilences. Sub- 
sequently, in process of time, the government ceased to regu- 
late the processions, and the people took up the matter. In 
the tenth book of the Confucian analects, it is mentioned that 
" when the villagers were going through their ceremonies to 
drive away pestilential influences, Confucius put on his court 
robes and stood on the eastern steps." Whether the proces- 
sions spoken of in the Chinese classics or in ancient Chinese 
history were any thing like the processions in honor of the 
Five Rulers, the literary men do not agree. The general ob- 
ject of the ancient and of the modern processions are the same, 
t?ie expelling of pestilential infliiences. 

The opinions prevalent among the common people are ex- 




WHAT THE FIVE BULERS BEPBESENT. 277 

ceediDgly confused in regard to the objects or beings these 
Five Rulers represent or denote. They are explained by some 
as referring to the five elements of Nature, which, according 
to the Chinese, are tnetal^ tooodj water^fire^ and eartJu They 
are also believed to represent the five colors, yelloto^ greets red^ 
blacky and white. They are also thought to denote the five 
directions. Norths JSasty Souths West^ and Middle. 

The following table was furnished by a priest, who is era- 
ployed more or less constantly in performing ceremonies con- 
nected with their worship, and may be as near the popular no- 
tions as any which could be prepared. The people dificr 
greatly among themselves in regard to them. 

Names of the Five Rulers, and what they are supposed to 
represent : 



NaiDM. 


Five Colow. 


Five Elmicnts. 


Hve DIrecUoM. 


Tidng, 


Yellow, 


Earth, 


Middle, 


ChUng, 


Green, 


Wood, 


East, 


L4u, 


White, 


Metal, 


West, 


Su, 


Rod, 


Fire, 


South, 


Tieu. 


Black. 


Water. 


North. 



The order above given is their order of rank. The chief, 
Tiong, is represented with a pleasant human countenance, and 
having three eyes, one situated in the middle of his forehead, 
and with a long red beard. Oflcn his face is made of a gold- 
en hue, and, according to theory, the face of each should be of 
a color corresponding to the color which each represents. 
This, however, is not always carried out in fact. Tlje appear- 
ance of all the Five Rulers, except the one first mentioned, is 
ugly and repulsive. These four have hideous faces, having a 
snout projecting much like swine, or having extremely large 
noses, or having eyes and features generally similar to a mon- 
key. Sometimes the mouth is four-cornered, or coming to a 
point like the mouth of a fowl. The images in different tem- 
ples are not alike. There seems to bo very much license taken 
by the architect in regard to shape and color. 

The temples where the Five Rulers are worshiped are pro- 
fessedly dedicated to the god of war. There is a tablet, with 
his title or name upon it, attached generally to the front or 
the outside of the numerous temples where thoy are worship- 
ed. The origin of this custom is said to be this : Some fifteen 




278 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

or twenty years ago, a liigli official, whose yamun was in the 
city, one day met, while riding in his sedan in the street, a pro- 
cession in honor of the Five Rulers. The procession did not 
yield him the right of way, but kept on as though it expected 
the mandarin would retire, or be carried to one side, while the 
Five-Ruler procession was passing along. This course highly 
exasperated the mandarin, who ordered his lictors to seize and 
flog some of the chief actors in the procession on the spot. 
This course broke up the prodbssion, the members of which 
speedily dispersed in all directions. On inquiry, the mandarin 
learned that the worship of this class of idols, " the Five Rul- 
ers," was not recognized by imperial rescript, and he determ- 
ined to prevent all future processions in their honor, and to 
exterminate the images themselves. As soon as this purpose 
became known to the devotees of the Rulers, arrangements 
M^ere made by which the title of the god of war, Kuang Ti, 
should appear on their temples, and an image of this god was 
placed in them. This title was used as a shield for the Five 
Rulers, as it could be said tJiese are temples of the god of tear. 
As the god of war was in high favor with the ruling dynasty, 
no mandarin dare interfere with any temple called after his 
name or title. 

These Five Rulers, notwithstanding their immense popular- 
ity, are classed among the " corrupt gods" — that is, they have 
not been honored with the approbation or recognition of an 
emperor — they have not been declared to he gods by some oc- 
cupant of the dragon throne. The corrupt gods, those unac- 
knowledged by the state, become correct gods by the decree 
of an emperor. Afler they have been officially and formally 
recognized by an emj)cror, no one, people or mandarin, would 
have the boldness to interfere with them, or treat them public- 
ly with disrespect, unless they or their human directors and 
protectors should plainly be to blame, or violate some law of 
the land. 

In the fall of 1859, the Emperor Ilien Fung conferred the 
honorary title of "77e?/," or Jfarqtds, upon these rulers, on 
the representation of Uong Hi Talk, a viceroy who had finish- 
ed his term of office here, and was removing to another 
place. 

During the fifth and sixth months, the processions in their 




COKCEBNING PROCESSIONS OF THE FIVE RULERS. 279 

honor are the most linmerous. Sometimes a procession re- 
qaires from one to two hours to pass by any givcu locality. 
Chinese in common sedans must allow their sedans to be put 
down on the ground when they meet any one of the principal 
idols, which are borne by eight men each. If on horseback, 
tbey must dismount. The sedans containing the idols carried 
in procession are so large, and the bearers so insolent, tlint 
it is usually impracticable to pass in sedans following from be- 
hind, if one wished to go past. • The common people observe 
a most re^pectful attitude while the large images, in their se- 
dans, arc passing them. It is believed that any insult to them 
wouhl be speedily followed with colic or dysentery, or some 
similar painful and dangerous disease. Mon of very respecta- 
ble |>ositions in society frequently engaire in these processions 
in consequence of some vow, usually made for the benefit of 
the health of their parents. 

There are numerous unions in this i)lace, the particular ob- 
ject of which is to worship and carry in procession the Five 
Emperors through the streets, in ordcM- to expel pestilential 
diseases and iniluences from the country. These unions are 
usually connected with a temple wherr iunges of the " Holers"'' 
are k<'pt. Each union every year collects enough money with 
which to purchase a bo<it^ and, after carrying it in procession, 
sends it out to sea filled with the pestilential inlluciiccs which 
have Wen collected. 

Tlie time of collecting money for the purchase of the boat, 
and other expen<!es connected with it, falls in the hot summer 
"months, when there are more or less people sick with the kind 
of diseases which it is the laudable object to j>revent or expel. 
The collectors go through the principal streets in c<»mpanies, 
with drums, gongs, and flags expecting to receive contribu- 
tions from every shop. Private dwelling-houses in the neif:;h- 
Wrhood where the temple is located, or where the members 
^»f the union principally reside, are also visited in this manner. 
The collectors willingly roct'ive incense, candles, or any thing 
worth money — as nu>ck-money, niock-<*Iothing, salt, and rice. 

TliC lH»at is usually twenty or twenty-five \Wi long, and 
made as litrht as jM>ssibIe, tin? frame of it bi'ing of bainlxxi, and 
small and narrow pieces of wo(»il. The frame is covered with 
pa|»er. Various apartments are formed, professedly lo store 




280 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

goods, and for the accommodation of people on board. It 
is carried by eight, or sixteen, or a larger number of men. In 
iris put a little of almost every sort of article used in families, 
as rice, salt, wood, fruits, etc., together with miniature articles 
of furniture, as tables, chairs, bowls, and plates, made out of 
paper, or paper and bamboo splints. Miniature paper images 
of the crew are also put in the boats. 

Paper images of the Five Rulers are made at establishments 
where such work is done, in t)rder to be put into the boats 
when sent out to sea. When completed, they are usually es- 
corted home to the temple with which the union that bargain- 
ed for them is connected, with considerable pomp and parade. 
Each paper image is placed in a sedan carried by eight men, 
and in the procession there are more or less of the tall white 
and the short black devil servants. The procession is accom- 
panied with men who beat gongs and drums. All this parade 
is to take away a few diminutive images made out of paper 
and bamboo, weighing in the aggregate not nearly whsA one 
man could carry with great ease. After arrival at the temple 
where they belong they are treated with great reverence. 

At« convenient time, the wooden images of the Five Rulers, 
which are kept in each temple dedicated to them, are taken 
out and carried through the principal streets with a great show 
of honor. Each image is carried by eight men, and is accom- 
panied by a set of servants real and imaginary. The real 
servants are lictors, incense-bearers, and criers, who make ev- 
ery now and then a most doleful and prolonged noise. The 
imaginary servants are immense images (carried by men who 
get inside of them), made out of bamboo and cloth, of a variety 
of shapes, and representing a variety of assistants to the Five 
Rulers. This kind of procession usually takes place in the 
afternoon and evening. When over, the portable and sub- 
stantial images are carried home to the temples to which they 
belong, and the company which composed the procession dis- 
perses. 

This procession with the boat is sometimes an imposing 
spectacle. The boat is carried along in the evening, lighted 
up with numerous candles or lamps. Very frequently, when 
a boat in procession from a large and rich temple is carried 
along, the sides of the streets are thronged with idle men, 




CABKYING THE "UAPPY BUCKETS." 



281 




UOAT CABRIU) IN FBOOCSttlOM OSt UJU<*B BUOULPEBS. 

iFomen, and children, anxious or curious to see the spectacle. 
Usually in every such procession arc a largo number of porta- 
ble hideous images, carried by men inside, accompanied by 
their lictors, and bands of music, and men who join in it, in 
consequence of some aid supposed to have come from the 
Rulers benefiting themselves, or their parents or families. 
Tliey join it to express their thanks. 

In the procession there frequently is a well-dressed man 
carrying a couple of pails, which contain a little of the blood 
of swine, the buffalo, and fowls, and some of their hair and 
feathers. He carries what are called the " Happy Biickets!^^ 
Carrying them in the procession is regarded an especial work 
of merit. Formerly it was pei*formed only by hired beggars ; 
nowadays by a volunteer from a respectable family, out of 
gratitude to the Five Rulers for the recovery of a near relative 
from sickness, or in the ho])C of procuring such a result. Tiic 
contents represent the filth which cause pestilence and epi- 




282* 



POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 



(leniic diseases. They are poured out into the river when the 
boat is burned. 

\ 




CA^BSTINO THE llAPPY IIUCKET8. 

In many large idol processions there is also a man dressed 

neatly, carrying the instru- 
ments of torture and pun- 
ishments in common use 
in a magistrate's office, as 
the cangne, leathern thong 
for slapping the face, in- 
struments for compressing 
the ankles and the fingers, 
etc. It is supposed that 
some of the utensils for 
punishing and torturing 
employed in the other 
world are similar to the 
instruments used in this 
• world. These instruments 

UAlt&YlXU IMbTKUMKNTS OF PUMUOUIK^iT AMD it* 

or TOKTURK. are paraded in procession 





MEMBERS OF AN IDOL PROCESSION. 283 

in order to indicate or intimate to the spectators the punish- 
ments which await the wicked in the world of spirits. 

Usually not far from the front of the boat are tlie mem- 
bers of a " sailors' society." This society is formed, and its 
expenses provided, by men who are fond of sport generally. 
They profess to desire to furnish men who shall row out to 
sea the boats which ai*e provided for the accommodation of 
the Five Rulers. The directors select fifteen or twenty lads 
of ten or twelve years of age, and hire some music-teacher to 
instruct them in the parts they are expected to perform. They 
are taught to play, for a month or longer, on various musical 
instruments, and beat the gong and the drum in unison. 
When boats are carried in procession, these quasi sailors pre- 
cede them on foot. Some of them play on their instruments. 
Two carry a pewter anchor a foot or two long. One carries 
a small oar, another a compass, such as is used on junks, etc. 
The trowsers and shirts worn by them are usually made all 
alike out of black cotton or grass cloth. They have a red or 
blue belt around their waist. Their braided cues are twisted 
np in a knot behind the head — not coiled around it, as usual. 
They wear a small hat made of bamboo splints and leaves. 
As they walk along before the boat, they sometimes chant a 
song praising the Five Rulers or relating to peace and plenty. 

These boys work or play thus without wages. They have 
their food and clothing found them free of expense while en- 
gaged, and they like the prominence or notoriety their posi- 
tion in the processions gives them. The same company of 
l>oys usually perform in several processions during the season. 
They are not found in connection with any processions but 
those in honor of the Five Rulers. 

On the boat arriving at the river's bank, \chere it is em- 
barked on the tcatcr and sent out to sea^ or, in plain language, 
wliere it is burned^ it is placed in some convenient position. 
All the images in which men have ensconced themselves run 
rapi<lly around the boat, and then kneel down in a circle not 
far distant from' it, with their faces turned toward it. When 
every thing is ready the boat is set on fire and consumed, at- 
tended with the beating of gongs and drums, and this is called 
sending it out to sea. 

But a small space can be devoted to a description of the 




284 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

portable images found principally in processions of the Five 
liulers, and in those in honor of 2\li Sang and of Sidng 
Hudng, 

These usually go in pairs or in a company of four. 

1. The TaU White Devil and the Short Black Devil are 
very numerous. The former is said to be a policeman in the 
infernal regions. The image is ten or twelve feet high, as it 
appears carried in procession. The head, face, and hands are 
made of pasteboard and paper, and the body of bamboo, usu- 
ally covered with white or whitish cotton cloth or silk. Its 
liead has upon it a long, square, bent hat, two or three feet 
tall, with a strip of red cloth often wound around it. In one 
hand it carries an immense fan, and in the other a kind of 
wand, on which are words which teach that this assistant of 
the gods is designed " to reteardthe good andpimish the eviV* 
Around the waist usually a strip of light blue cloth is tied as 
a belt. The face is long, hair disheveled, eyes protruding, 
tongue red, and often extending out of the mouth. The body 
is slim. The image is carried erect by a strong man, who gets 
inside. The clothing comes down only to the man^s knees, 
leaving his feet and part of his legs to be seen as ho walks 
along. An orifice is made in the clothing in front, where the 
head of the man inside comes, so that he can look out and see 
to walk. It is com portable with the dignity of this devil-serv- 
ant to walk slowly and with long strides. There are usually 
two boys beating gongs in front of it. Oflentimes there 
are several men playing on musical instruments going before. 
Preceding the image there are generally two men, each carry- 
ing a large lantern upon a pole above their heads, having an 
inscription which implies that it belongs to some officer in the 
world of spirits. It is also often accompanied by one or two 
l)ersons who aid the man inside when he requires to steady it. 

The Short 131ack Devil is stubbed and pursy. Its face and 
dress are very black. It always wears a large black hat. 
A strip of red cloth is usually tied about it. Its tongue pro- 
tnides, and is red, as if covered with blood. It is moved about 
occasionally by the persons inside by means of a string, pro- 
ducing a very disagreeable appearance. Its gait is very un- 
dignified, as it is made to jump or spring suddenly from one 
side of the street to the other. Sometimes it turns around in 




" assistants" seen in idol processions. 



285 



the street and gazes back, wagging its head and moving its 
tongue. This image is carried usually by a strong lad or a 
very short man, who has a looking-out place made in the fore- 
head or hat of the image, whence he can see where to go. 
Tlie face and framework generally are made out of pasteboard, 
paper, and bamboo splints. 

These assistants are represented by heavy stationary images 
in the temples where such objects are reverenced. O^entimes 
their pictures are found on the walls of temples. The same 
remark is true of the assistants which remain to be described. 
All of these images are made in a similar way, with partic- 
ular variations as regards shape, size, and features, to suit the 
fancy of those who have invented them or who use them. 




IHJrrAU>»IIKAl>Kn AM(IHTAN'T. U(»ICl»li-l'At.-Kt» AH«lbl.V>l. 

(Like their sutionary inutges or picttirea seeQ in temples.) 

2. The BujQfalo-headcd assistant, t\ie Horse-faced assistant, 
the Cock-headed assistant, and the Dnck-monthed assistant, 
are images eight or ten feet high, and usually go together. 
There is nothing particularly frightful about their appearance. 
They, by means of the man inside, pass along slowly and sol- 
emnly in the procession. They are mainly distinguished by 
the peculiar shape of their faces or their heads. The color of 
their dress is usually white or bluish. They appear like im- 
mense giants, excepting their peculiar heads. 

3. Two tall images in human form, which are distinguished 




286 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

from each other principally by the one carrying a cangue and 
the other carrying a chain and a lock^ are sometimes seen. 
They appear to be ready to seize and put the cangue or lock 
the chain on offenders should their majesties the Kulers give 
the command. Their countenances are grim and severe. 

4. The " one-horned" and the " double-horned" devils ap- 
pear with hideous countenances. One has the top of his head 
coming to a blunt peak, and the other has two horn-like pro- 
jections coming from the right and the left sides of the top 
of his head, from which circumstances they derive their names. 
One carries a cudgel in one hand bristling with spikes, and 
something in the other resembling a large leaf The other 
carries a smooth, large-headed cudgel in one hand, or a wood- 
en sword, and in the other some chains. These, and the two 
just described, represent some of the lictors of the Five Rulers. 

5. The "accomplishing" assistant and the "transforming** 
assistant are believed to perform important offices in prevent- 
ing pestilential diseases. One carries in one hand a gourd-like 
vessel for the purpose of collecting the poisonous vapors and 
the unhealthy influences which prevail, and in the other a leaf 
of the banana, or something to represent such a leaf; the oth- 
er carries in one hand an immense wooden sword, to drive off^ 
and in the other a large brush, to sweep away all the. evil in- 
fluences and unhealthy odors which may be encountered. 

There are two classes of objects — human, because they are 
men, and inhuman, because their faces are painted to repre- 
sent devils. These seldom appear in an idol procession. 

One class is painted so as to represent, according to Chi- 
nese notions, the four seasons — AS};n//y, Summer^ Autumn^ and 
Winter, Spring is denoted by a man with a greenish face; 
summer, by a man with a reddish face; autumn, by a man 
with a whitish face ; and winter, by a man with a blackish face. 

Another class is painted so as to represent the five demons 
or spirits which rule over the ^five (lirrc(io?is — Norths JCast^ 
Souths West^ and the Middle, They are by no means pleas- 
ant-looking. Tiie stationary images of the five directions, as 
found in some of the temples, or as they are sometimes paint- 
ed on paper or on the walls of temples, are horrid and fright- 
ful in the extreme. As represented by men who appear in an 
idol procession, they are much less frightful than in tho tem- 




IMAGES AND PICTURES OF ANIMALS WORSHIPED. 287 

pies, but sufficiently horrid and ugly to produce a lasting and 
unpleasant impression when seen in connection with the many 
other unnatural and devilish-looking objects which have been 
enumerated. 

It will require but little imagination on the part of the read- 
er, aided by the above description, to conceive that idol pro- 
cessions constitute a very strange and imposing spectacle as a 
whole. Few foreigners who have seen one do not retain an 
abiding impression of its general appearance. 

There are probably, at the least calculation, fifteen or twen- 
ty " unions^' connected with temples which send forth to the 
ocean one or more boats annually, and which have other pub- 
lic processions previous to those when their boats are carried 
to the water's edge and burned. There are not many days in 
the summer months which are not occupied more or less, ei- 
ther in the city or suburbs, with some kind of an idol proces- 
sion. Not unfrequently there are days when for hours the 
main streets in places are almost, if not quite, impassable to 
those who in sedans wish to go in a direction opposite to that 
which the procession is taking. If going in the same direction, 
the progress is slow and annoying to a high degree. 

Images and Pictures of Animals tcors/iiped. 

The facts given below will tend to illustrate the nature and 
the genius of heathenism^ as existing and as practiced in this 
city and vicinity by the people who "serve the creature more 
than the Creator." 

The Monkey, — It is represented as a man sitting, the face 
only being like a monkey. The image is usually made of 
wood or clay. Sometimes a picture of it is made on paper, or 
simply the title under which the monkey is worshiped is writ- 
ten on a slip of paper, and used instead of an image. There 
are several large temples at this place erected for the worship 
of "His Excellency the Holy King," one of the titles much 
used in speaking of the monkey as an object of worship. Oft- 
entimes the niche holding the imago or the written name is 
placed in a hollow tree, or in the wall at the corners of streets, 
or at the heads of alleys or lanes. Such places, in this city 
and vicinity, where the monkey is worshiped, reckoned to- 
gether with the small temples or buildings dedicated to it^ 




288 POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSES. 

amount to several scores. The worship consists principally 
in the burning of incense and candles, sometimes attended 
with the presentation of meats, vegetables, and fruits. The 
monkey was first worshiped in return for some supposed serv- 
ices rendered the individual who wenJb to India, by special 
command of an emperor of the Tang dynasty, to obtidn the 
Sacred Books of the Buddhist religion — so some affirm. This 
emperor deified the monkey, or, at least, ho conferred the au- 
gust title of "^Ae great Sage equal to Heaven*^ upon that quad- 
ruped. The birthday of " His Excellency the Holy King" is 
believed to occur on the twenty-third of the second Chinese 
month, when his monkey majesty is specially worshiped by 
men from all classes of society. The monkey is beliei^ to 
have the general control of hobgoblins, witches, elves, etc. It 
is also supposed to be able to bestow health, protection, and 
success on mankind, if not directly, indirectly, by keeping away 
malicious spirits or goblins. People often imagine that sick- 
ness, or want of success in study and trade, is caused by witch- 
es and hobgoblins. Hence the sick or the unsuccessful wor- 
ship the monkey, in order to obtain its kind offices in driving 
away or preventing the evil influences of various imaginary 
spirits or powers. 

27ie Fox, — This animal is worshiped by the viceroy, and by 
other high mandarins at this place. The fox is supposed to 
have the control of the official seals belonging to high offices 
of government. In the viceroy's establishment is a room in 
the second story of a building which is devoted to the wor- 
ship of the fox. It has no image, nor is there any picture of 
the animal worshiped. Tho viceroy, on arrival at his official 
residence after appointment, repairs to this room, kneels down» 
bows his head toward the ground three times, and offiirs three 
cups of wine, three sticks of incense, and two candles, in order 
to propitiate the good-will of Reynard, the keeper of tho seal 
Unless the fox should bo worshiped in some way, it is assert- 
ed by the common people that it would cause the seal to dis- 
appear, and otherwise injure the mandarin, as setting tho es- 
tablishment on fire. There are very wonderful stories in con- 
nection with the power of the fox in mandarin establishments 
current in this city. The fox is believed also to have the pow- 
er of changing at pleasure into the human form, or of entering 




A GOD OF GAHBLERa 



289 



the bodies of men and women. Sometimes diseases are at- 
tributed to this animal, which is accordingly worshiped by the 
sick one, or, on his account, by others, in order to induce it not 
to molest, vex, or injure the sick individuaL Its invisible 
agency in preventing success in business is very much dreaded 
by the people. 

The Tiger, — This animal is worshiped by two different 
classes of people and for two different objects. 

By gamblers, — It is the god of .gambling, or one of the 
gods worshiped by gamblers. 
Sometimes an image is made 
of wood or clay, or a picture is 
delineated on paper or a pfcco 
of board of a \tinged tiger, 
standing on its hinder feet, and 
grasping a large cash in its 
mouth or in its paws. Some- 
times merely a title of the an- 
imal, "iTw Excellency the 
Grasping Cash Tiger^'^ is writ- 
ten on a piece of paper. This 
is then put under the gaming- 
table, between two bunches of 
mock -money, which are sus- 
pended; or it is placed on a 
table in the gamblins^-room, or 
fastened to the wall behind a 
table. Incense and candles are often burned before this im- 
age or this inscription. On the second and sixteenth days of 
every Chinese month, offerings of meat, fish, eta, are frequent- 
ly made before it. Sometimes gambling saloons or dens are 
recognized from the street by the sign, placed over the outside 
door, of a tiger painted on a board in the position above men- 
tioned. The tiger is worshiped by the proprietor of a gam- 
bling den in order to bring success. 

By mothers in behalf of their sick children^ not separately 
and alone, but always in connection with a goddess of chil- 
dren. This goddess is represented as sitting upon the back 
of a tiger in a crouching posture. The tiger is supposed to 
have the power of absorbing or of counteracting the perni- 

Voi.. I.— y 




TIOKB OBAAPINO A LiOtOB CA8U .' 
or OAJUILIXO. 




290 



POPULAR GODS AND GODDESSEa 



cious influences which cause children to become sick. When 

a child, for example, has 
the small-pox in a very 
virulent form, and fears 
are entertained for the 
child's life, some one in- 
terested in its recovery 
burns incense and can- 
dles before an image of 
the woman and tiger, or 
before something which 
represents them, either 
in a temple or in a dwell- 
ing-house, promising to 
make certain specified 
thank -ofleriugs in case 
the child recovers, as the 
burning of mock -mon- 
ey, and a fresh and raw 
pig's tail (of which the 
tiger is believed to be 
very fond), meats, fruits, 
and vegetables. It is estimated that a very large proportion 
of the mothers in this city — perhaps more than half — worship 
the tiger in connection with the goddess as above represented. 
The Dog, — An image or representation of this animal is 
found in connection with several objects of worship at this 
place. 

It occurs on a painting extensively used by married women 
as an object of worship in their sleeping apartments. It is 
called a " heavenly dog," or a " dog in the heavens." The 
picture represents a certain genius^ sun-ounded by several 
children. He is in the act of shooting a dog with a bullet by 
means of a bow, the dog being in the air much above the level 
of the shooter and the children. This dog in the heavens is 
believed to eat the children of mortals, and this genius is 
famed for his skill in shooting this bad dog. A literary man 
has furnished the following explanation of the use of this plant- 
ing : Some women are born on days which are represented by 
the chronological or horary character which means "cfo^." 




001>U£SS OF MIDWIFKBY AM> OlItLDOKN bITTlXO ON 
A TIOKB. 




SHOOTING THE "HEAVENLY" DOG. 



291 



These women, after marriage, and before they give birth to 
a child, must pro- 
cure a picture of 
the genius shoot- 
ing the " heavenly 
dog," and worship 
it by the burning 
of incense and can- 
dles. The child 
then may be ex- 
pected to live. In 
the picture, the 
children are repre- 
sented as gather- 
ing around the ge- 
nius^ in order to 
insure protection 
from the dog, 
which would cer- 
tainly devour them 
if the shooter did 
not defend them. 
Twice every year, 
on the third day of 
the second month, 
and on the twenty- 
third of the elev- 
enth month, offerings are presented to this genitiSy such as in- 
cense, candles, mock-money, vermicelli, and seven balls made 
of the flour of rice. These balls represent the balls with which 
the hunter shoots the dog. At other times during the year, 
when the household gods are worshiped, only incense and can- 
dles are burned before this picture. Others say that this pic- 
ture is worshiped by mothers in behalf of a child only when 
the child is declared by a fortune-teller to be under the influ- 
ences of the "heavenly dog," or exposed to them. In all 
cases, the genius is resorted to for the purpose of securing the 
child from the depredations of the dog. 

One of the servants of Ngiiong ^aili, a god of music, play- 
acting, and war, is represented as a dog. This god is repre- 




02(1 or Tm KINK OKNII SnOOTUlO A DOO IN TUK 

ueatkhs. 




292 POPULAB GODS AND GODDESSES. 

sented in both a civil and in a military dress. When repre- 
sented, whether by an image or in pictures, in the military 
costume, one foot is sometimes placed on the back of a dag- 
headed animal. At other times this animal is represented as 
having a dog^a heady with the body, feet, and hands of a man, 
holding a flag. Ngilong Saiii, it is said, had a favorite dog, 
which afterward became one of his assistants when he was 
deified. Hence the association with him of an animal having 
a dog's head. This god is much worshiped here by certain 
classes. 

In a celebrated temple located outside of the east gate of 
tl.c city is an image of a large dog. It is currently reported 
that if bread-cakes or biscuits made of wheat flour are placed 
in the mouth of this image of a dog, and afterward eaten by 
children, they will prevent or cure the colic. 

The Black Monkey an^ the White HabbiL — ^These are rep- 
resented both by images and by pictures, and are usually re- 
garded as the servants of the god of courtesans. This god is 
regarded as having power over men and women. He is said 
to have seized the spirits of the black monkey and white rab- 
bit, and to have made them his assistants. In what manner 
he accomplished this feat, and how these animals aid him in 
his evil purposes, the Chinese are not able to explain with 
clearness. They are represented as having a human body, but 
the head of a monkey and of a rabbit, the monkey being bbck 
and the rabbit white. 

77ie Ihragon, — This is regarded as the giver of rain. In 
times of drought, it is worshiped in order to obtain the need- 
ed element. A temple located near the eastern gate of the 
city is devoted to the worship of this fabulous animal. It is 
among those objects or images which are worshiped, by com- 
mand of the emperor, in the spring and fall of each year by 
certain mandarins. 

In a certain temple near the governor's yamun in the city 
is an image of a xchite cock^ which is worshiped in connection 
with a certain goddess. Some say that this goddess is the 
deified daughter of a governor of the province who lived in the 
time of Kanghi, and who killed himself during a local tumult 
or rebellion which he could not quell. She had a white cock» 
of which she was very fond, and which seemed exceedingly 




OBJECTT OF WOBSHIPINO GODS AND GODDESSES. 298 

attached to her. On hearing of the death of her father, this 
girl threw herself into a well and was drowned. This cock, 
seeing his mistress leap into the well, leaped in also and per- 
ished. She afterward became, by order of some emperor, an 
object of worship, and an image of the faithful cock was made, 
and worshiped in connection with his mistress. She is reck- 
oned now among those objects which are worshiped twice ev- 
ery year, in accordance with the mandate of the emperor, by 
the local mandarins. Few of the common people, it is be- 
lieved, nowadays actually worship this goddess. When wor- 
ship is performed before her shrine, incense and candles are 
always burned in honor of the white cock. 

Various popular gods and goddesses, as the " Three Pre- 
cious Ones," worshiped by Buddhists, and the "Three Pure 
Ones," worshiped by Tauists, the goddess of small-pox and 
the goddess of measles, etc., have been already mentioned, and 
need not be described here. There are many other objects 
which are more or less commonly worshiped by the people, 
but which it would be tedious to describe in detail. Objects 
terrestrial and celestial, objects visible and invisible, and ob- 
jects real and imaginary, are made the recipient of the hom- 
age of the Chinese. It is worthy of remark and remembrance, 
that among them all there is not one the object of the worship 
of which is to make the devotee more pure and more sincere, 
more honest, more virtuous, or more holy. The object whose 
attainment is desired is always selfish, sensual, or secular. 




294 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 



CHAPTER Xn. 

MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

Viceroy. — Governor. — Treasurer. — Jndge. — Salt Comminioner. — Pn>- 
Tision Commissioner. — Prefect. — Marine Inspector. — District Magis- 
trates. — Literary Chancellor. — ^Tartar Greneral. — Major General. — Num- 
ber of Sedan-bearers allowed to Mandarins. — Umbrellas of State. — But- 
tons or Balls on their Caps. — Cannon fired in Honor. — Respect paid to 
Officers in the Street. — Retinue of high Officers in Public. — Lictora of 
the District Magistrate. — Uniform of Attendants not in good Taste. — Ap- 
pointed Days for calling on the Viceroy and Governor. — Same Days al- 
lotted for filing Prosecutions. — Other Days for calling upon subordinate 
Mandarins. — "Drum Pavilion." — No fixed Charges for official Aid. — 
Bambooing. — Deception practiced. — Official Documents must be Stamped. 
— ** Horses of a thousand Li." — Complaint must be made before a Mur- 
derer is arrested and punished. — Village Constable. — "White" Deeds and 
**Rcd" Deeds. — Fruit sent as Tribute to Peking annually. — Mandarins 
cngapr in saving the Moon or Sun when eclipsed. — Arresting and chain- 
ing one's self.— Death by Strangulation. — Meaning of a Present of a Silk 
Cord from the Emperor. — ** Searching a Mandarin's House." — Fining 
Part of Salary. — Degrading from Rank. — Removing from Office. — Re- 
Figning Office on the Death of one's Parent. — Asking Permission to resign 
Office on Account of Illness of a Parent. — Asking Permission to resign 
CJffice and remain with Parents until they Die. — Resigning a high Office 
l>ccanse a Relative or Friend fills a subordinate Office. — Asking for a short 
Respite from the Cares of Office. — Resignations often unaccepted. — Res- 
ignations on account of old Age proffered. — Asking leave to resign on Ac- 
count of Sickness. — Setting a Thief to catch a Thief. — Civil Thief-catch- 
er. — Military Thief-catcher. — Once a Thief always a Thief.— Universal 
Custom of giving Presents to a Mandarin on his Arrival at his Mandarin- 
nte. — Mandarins greatly under the Influence of Subordinates. — ** Great 
Sires." — '*The Door-parcel."— Door-keepers of Yamnns bribed. — Manda- 
rin's Adviser or Teacher. — Manner of securing his Services. — Six Boards 
of Office in Yamuns. 

The viceroy has the general Bnperintendence of Fokkien 
and Chehkien provinces. His honorary title is "President 
of the Board of War." He has the power to behead ocean 
pirates, rebels, and traitors, and afterward report the facts to 
Peking. He exercises occasionally the power to degrade or 
deprive of office the prefect and officers below the prefect. 




THE TREASURER AND THE SALT COMMISSIONER. 295 

The governor presides over the province, and is frequently 
called the ^^ Lord of the Promnce^'* He controls, according to 
theory, the soldiers and the people, civil and military, as does 
the viceroy. The viceroy is a kind of spy on the governor^ 
and vice versa, lie has the honorary title of" Vice-President 
ofthe Board of War." 

The treasurer is a very important officer. He is accounta- 
ble for all the money paid into the treasury by the district 
magistrates in all the province. He pays out the salaries and 
the lawful allowances of the civil and military officers, and the 
wages of the soldiers, repairs the city walls, and superintends 
and pays for all the public works in the province. On the 
death of the emperor, or on his birthday, the treasurer takes 
the precedence of the higher officers in the mournful or the 
joyful demonstrations made in the emperor's temple. In the 
one case he is dressed in white clothes, the badges of mourn- 
ing, and weeps as though he had lost his father, being some- 
times called the "child of the emperor;" in the other case he 
is dressed in his official robes, and presents his congratulations 
to his imperial father before the yellow tablet which represents 
the emperor in the temple. 

The provincial judge presides over the examination and 
the punishment of ordinary criminals from all parts of the 
province. The judge can revise and reverse the decisions of 
the prefect and inferior officers in any part of the province re- 
lating to criminals or persons charged with crimes. His is a 
place of great power, responsibility, and pecuniary profit. 

The salt commissioner controls the manufacture and sale of 
salt in the province. He has the power to oblige rich men to 
carry on the salt business. The commissioner is responsible 
for the regular salt revenue, which he obliges the contractors 
to pay over to him at regular periods. In consequence of this, 
ho takes usually but little pains to arrest and punish those 
who clandestinely deal in salt. Each new contractor is obliged 
to assume the sums yet unpaid due by his predecessor to gov- 
ernment on account of the salt revenue. In this way the salt 
commissioner is safe from harm, though at the expense of jus- 
tice. Those who are obliged by him to carry on the salt busi- 
ness always become poor. There are so many ways of dis- 
posing of salt clandestinely, on account of the deceptive i)rao- 




296 



KANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 



tices of their underlings, that they always lose money in the 
coarse of their connection with the salt business. When any 
salt contractor does not pay up promptly the monthly revenue 
dues to the salt commissioner, he is often dealt with very 
harshly. Sometimes he is thrown into prison, where he is 
beaten or otherwise maltreated. Being wealthy, and usually 
very respectably connected, he always desires to avoid all con- 
tention with his superior, and therefore aims with great solic- 
itude at having the necessary sum ready. When he is posi- 
tively unable to meet his monthly payments^ and falls largely 
in arrears to the government, some other rich man is com- 
pelled, by being flogged, or by being made to kneel on chains, 
or by some other distressing and unjust course, to consent to 
engage in the salt business, and to take upon himself the pay- 
ment of the arrearages of his predecessor. 




MA^DA&IM AN1> UI8 W ITE IS BOUKS OF BIATK. 



The provision commissioner controls the provision and land- 
tax departments. He receives and accounts for the taxes, which 
are paid in grain, from all parts of the province. He provides 
the rice and provisions for the soldiers of the province. 




DISTRICT MAGISTRATES AND THE TARTAR GENERAL. 297 

The prefect rules over a prefecture or county, a division of 
territory next smaller than a province. He reports to the 
governor. He takes part in the regular examinations of they^^ ^ 
undergraduates, both civil and military. He is the head actor — 
in the annual procession in honor of Spring. Foreign consuls 
have to do generally with the prefect. 

The marine inspector presides over the marine affairs of 
this part of the province. Ships from foreign countries come 
under his supervision. He has some revenue offices connected 
with ocean commerce under his control. He must report to 
the Tartar general on matters relating to revenue. 

The two district magistrates rule over the common people 
in their respective districts. Many matters which are to come 
under the supervision of higher officials must first be brought 
before one of these magistrates, according to the section of 
the city or the adjacent territory to which they refer, or in 
which the parties belong. These officials report to the pre- 
fect the important affairs which are brought before them. 
They preside over the lowest series of examinations of civil 
and military under-graduates belonging to their respective dis- 
tricts, but have nothing to do with the examination, govern- 
ment, or punishment of graduates. 

The literary chancellor is a high officer sent from Peking, 
whose term of office is of three years' duration, to examine the 
literary and military under-graduates, and govern the gradu- 
ates of the first degree of the literary class. 

The Tartar general governs the Tartars living in the city, 
and the affairs which relate to the city wall. He is the city 
keeper. The keys of the seven gates of the city, after they 
are closed, are delivered into his possession every night. It is 
the common saying that if the gates should be opened contra- 
ry to law during the night, owing to the neglect of the Tartar 
general, and it should be reported at Peking, his head would 
pay the forfeit. In fact, people go into the city and out of it 
nightly in large numbers by scaling the walls after dark, 
through the connivance and the assistance of the gate-keepers, 
whom they bribe. The Tartar soldiers fall to the Tartar gen- 
eral to inspect and drill. There are also two or three bri- 
gades or camps, consisting nominally of about 1250 Chinese 
soldiers, who are placed under his control. He has a part to 

N 2 




298 MANDABINS AND TH£IR SUBORDINATES. 

perform in the spring and autumnal sacrifice to Confacios, 
and all the important affairs of the province are communicated 
to him. The reveime derived from commerce belongs to his 
supervision and control. The funds received he transfers to 
the provincial treasury. One of his important duties is to 
loatch the Chinese people and the Chinese officials. He is one 
of the few mandarins who may inform the emperor in regard 
to what is transpiring in the province in whose capital city he 
resides, secretly and on his own responsibility. Being a Tar- 
tar, he is supposed to be specially interested in whatever con- 
cerns the interests of the Tartar government and dynasty, and 
therefore will, under all contingencies, be faithful to his impe- 
rial relative and master, the Tartar emperor. 

The lieutenant general, or the major general, who is always 
a Tartar, {^professedly but little inferior in rank and power to 
the Tartar general. He has a voice in the decision of matters 
relating to the Tartar population. He is believed to be ap- 
pointed by the emperor to watch the Tartar general. He is 
usually the poorest of all the imperial officers, but is eligible to 
the station of the Tartar general, an office of great influence 
and emolument. 

The viceroy, the governor, the Tartar general, and the liter- 
ary chancellor, may have eight bearers to their sedans when 
they appear in the streets, and four assistants to steady the 
sedans. The Tartar lieutenant general, and the Chinese ad- 
miral, and the Chinese general, may also use each eight bear- 
ers, and four assistants to steady their sedans, if they please, 
though they oftener employ only four bearers and the assist- 
ants. The low military officers usually appear in the streets 
on horseback. If the major general and the adjutant general 
choose to ride in sedans, they have four bearers. Of the civil 
officers, the treasurer, the judge, and the commissioners of the 
salt and of the provision departments have four bearers, and 
four persons to steady the sedan. The prefect, the marine in- 
spector, and the two district magistrates have four bearers, 
and no one to steady their sedans. The incumbents of the of- 
fices still lower have only two or three bearers. Every thing 
about the mandarin procession is regulated by strict rule. 
For a low officer, entitled to have only two bearers, to appear 
in tlie streets with four bearers, would be an offi;nse for which 




PUBLIC PROCESSIONS OF MANDARINS. 



299 



he would be severely reprimanded, if he did not receive some 
heavy token of disapproval or disgrace, according to the pleas- 
ure of his superior. But Chinese never commit such indiscre- 
tions. They know better than to violate established customs. 

The rank of some officers may be ascertained by observing 
the color and the number of flounces on the umbrellas which 
are carried before them, and by the color of the buttons or 
balls on their caps. Some are bright red, and have three sto- 
ries of flounces ; others have two stories ; while others still 
are of a dark color, and are plainly made. Some five or six 
of the highest officers, when they leave their yamuns and 
when they return home, have three cannon fired ofl* as a sa- 
lute of honor. They have the same number of cannon fired 
off* when they enter the yamuns of other officers. When they 
parade the streets, some eight of the highest mandarins each 
iiave one or two men preceding their sedans, with a pole laid 
across their shoulders, 
having a gong on one 
end and a flag on the 
other. The bearer beats 
it occasionally three 
blows in regular suc- 
cession. When enter- 
ing a yamun it is beaten 
quickly and continually 
for a short period, and 
then it ceases. 

When high officers 
appear in the street, it is 
accounted a misdemean- 
or for the common peo- 
ple to mix up in the pro- 
cession. When it is 
fmssing by, a civilian in 
a sedan must cause his 
se<1an to be put down 
upon the ground, and 
people bearing loads or 
walking must stop, and 
st.and still by the side of »-'<^<» ^ '""* ^u**- »« ^^^ 




\ 




300 MANDABINS AND THKIB SUBOBDINATES. 

the street. People on horseback must dismount and stand 
in a respectful manner. The sign-boards of stores and shops, 
which usually are placed in front of the stores, must be re- 
moved from the street when the high mandarins pass by, as a 
mark of respect on the part of the shopkeepers. Should they 
be left standing in their usual positions, it would be consider- 
ed disrespectful to the mandarins, as though civilians should 
sit in the presence of high officials. When the mandarin is 
below the fourth official rank, the common people may mix up 
in the street with his runners and assistants with impunity. 
In regard to high mandarins, the lictors are sure to see that 
the established customs are properly observed, beating uncer- 
emoniously and unmercifully any one who does not make 
haste to comply with their orders as they pass swiftly along. 
High mandarins sometimes have quite a numerous retinae 
when they appear in public. The following enumeration re- 
lates particularly to the general retinue of the viceroy. The 
lower officers have a smaller retinue, according to their rank 
and station, sometimes comprising but six or eight attendants. 
Two men bearing gongs and flags in front. 
Ten or more men or boys carrying red oblong boards, with 
handles attached, having various inscriptions ; some of these 
denote the officer's rank, command the people to keep silence, 

and order idlers to 
get out of the way. 

Two men on horse- 
back. 

Two men, one car- 
rying a large official 
fan and the other a 
large umbrella of 
state. 

Two men carrying 
a trunk full of changes 
of clothing. 

Eight men carrying 
whips, whoso busi- 
ness it is to clear the 
way, call out when 
I or FAM or HTATr. passing the yamons 





USUAL BETINUE OF A VICEROY. 



801 




BKABKE or UMUR£LLA OF BTATK. 



of Other officers, and 
when turning around 
comers. 

Four men carrying 
censers having burning 
incense. 

Four men carrying 
swords. 

Two men, whose busi- 
ness in part is to receive 
petitions, if presented in 
the street 

Four men to steady 
the sedan of the man- 
darin. 

Four men on horse- 
back, holding each a flag having a long handle. 

Sixteen soldiers following the sedan, carrying swords, spears, 
flags, hammers, iron chains, etc. 

On occasions when he wishes to appear with extraordinary 
pomp and parade, he employs more men and more soldiers. 
When he pleases, he 
may dispense with 
many of the usual at- 
tendants. 

When a district 
magistrate appears in 
the streets, he has 
two men dragging 
along two halves of a 
large bamboo, some 
five or six feet long, 
one end only touch- 
ing the ground. 
There are also two 
who carry leather 
whips and perform 
the duty of lictors, 
and two who carry iron chains in their hands, as if ready to 
seize and chain any culprit they may happen to find. The 




LICTOH I>KAUtiIN'0 ALONG THK UALF OF . 




302 



MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 



the viceroy's 
sometimes ap- 



lictors with leathern whips clear the way, preceding the mag- 
istrate in his sedan. Following him, usually on horseback, are 
a couple of his interpreters. There is almost always a servant 
on foot carrying pipe and tobacco, and his card-case. 

The uniform worn by the attendants of mandarins as they 
appear in the streets is not according to a cultivated taste. 
Many appear in dirty and ragged garments. The lictors are 
generally dressed in long black garments, having either tall 
black or tall red hats, made out of bamboo splints. High offi- 
cials usually have eight lictors, half having red and half having 
black hats. Lower officers have two with red and two with 
black hats. These all usually have leather whips in their 
hands, and go in pairs. They are cruel and hard-hearted men. 
The soldiers have a round piece of white or red cloth upon 
their back and upon their breast, with black characters upon 
it, indicating the camp or the company to which they belong. 

The executioner belong- 



mg to 
yamun 

pears in his roaster's 
procession. He is dress- 
ed partly in red clothes 
made after the fashion 
of the Ming dynasty, 
wearing about his loins 
a kind of petticoat, and 
carrying a large sword 
of a peculiar shape. In 
his hat he wears two 
feathers of a kind of 
pheasant. It is the 
common saying that 
those who aspire to the position of executioner practice in 
striking at a mark. They take a turnip, and, drawing a black 
streak around it with ink, aim at cleaving it into two parts at 
a blow, striking precisely on the line. When they can inva- 
riably do it on successive trials, they feel qualified to become 
candidates for the post when there is a vacancy. 

Tiie third, thirteenth, twonty-third, eighth, eighteenth, and 
twenty-eighth days of ever} month are the appointed days 




5fe- 



EXKCUTtOMKJL 




INFEBIORS MAKING CALLS ON SUPERIORS. 308 

when the civil officers and the expectants of office in the city 
and subarbs are expected to call on the viceroy and the gov- 
ernor. They first go to the yamun of the viceroy and send in 
their cards. If he wishes to see any one he sends word for 
him to be ushered into his presence. All those who are not 
requested to remain consider themselves dismissed, and take 
their departure to call on the governor. When the one who 
has been invited in to see the great man has been shown out 
again, he proceeds to call on the governor, as the others have 
already done. There is always a great crowd of officers and 
their servants, and expectants of office, on the forenoons of 
these days, passing to and fro through the principal streets in 
the city. 

The same days, those in which three or eight occur, are also 
the regular periods for the reception at the diffisrent yamuns 
of written complaints. On other days of the month the man- 
darins do not open their offices for the admission of accusa- 
tions. When any one wishes to appeal to the law in regard 
to affiiirs which do not admit of delay until the next day for 
receiving complaints, he sometimes bribes a clerk connected 
with the yamun to which his business properly belongs to take 
his written accusation to the mandarin and recommend its ac- 
ceptance. Without a bribe no one would be willing to pre- 
sent it to the mandarin. 

There are certain other six days in the month when, early 
in the morning, all the officers below them in rank, and expect- 
ants of office below them, are expected to call upon the treasur- 
er, the judge, the salt commissioner, and the provision commis- 
sioner, to pay their respects and receive instructions, in very 
much the same manner as has been described relating to call- 
ing upon the viceroy and governor. Unless the inferior offi- 
cers and expectants should wait at the appointed times upon 
their superiors, they would be apt to incur their displeasure. 
The regular routine of attention and respect must be carried 
out between superiors and inferiors if the latter would stand 
well with the former, and expect to be promoted by them. 

In front of the yamuns of some four or five of the high man- 
darins is a small eight-sided building called " the drum pavil- 
ion," designed to be occupied by the band of music attached 
to the mandarinate, where they play at the usual times for the 




804 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATBS. 

amusement or in honor of the mandarin. When he rises in 
the rooming, washes his face and partakes of his luncheon, 
they must perform on their instruments, the fact of the man- 
darin being thus engaged having been duly communicated to 
them by his servants striking a large, hollow wooden fish, or 
upon certain iron utensils, which are suspended in several of 
the different halls leading from his apartments to the outer 
gates. While employed in eating breakfast, dinner, and sup- 
per, they also play some airs. His going to bed is also cele- 
brated in a similar way. On various public occasions these 
musicians are also required to practice their parts. The band 
consists at least of six or eight men, with several kinds of in- 
struments. They are paid from the provincial treasury, and 
the honor of having them is conferred by the emperor as a 
special privilege, hoping to gladden the hearts of his servants 
and induce them to be faithful to him. 

There is no scale of fixed fees in China regulating the 
charges for official work performed by mandarins or by their 
underlings, as in Western lands. Here the official demands 
as much as he imagines he can get, considering the circum- 
stances of the case. The mandarins have a regular salary 
from the imperial treasury. Within a comparatively short 
period (commenced in the reign of Kien Lun, of the present 
dynasty) an extra allowance has been made them by the em- 
peror. The design of this was to remove the need of bribery 
and extortion by furnishing an ample support. It does not 
have the happy result designed. 

Should a prisoner before the bar, in the judgment of the 
mandarin, deserve the rod, either as a punishment for acknowl- 
edged or proved crime, or in order to elicit confession of vio- 
lations of law, or for contempt of court, he has only to throw 
down upon the ground some bamboo slips. Every bamboo 
counts ^ve strokes. The whipper seizes the man and throws 
hira down on the ground, and proceeds to beat him. He is 
often bribed not to strike hard, though he pretends to be in- 
flicting very heavy blows. Sometimes, also, the prisoner has a 
man provided to receive the blows which should fall upon his 
own person. This individual is usually connected with the es- 
tablishment. This can be accomplished only by bribing the 
assistants and underlings. It is done by the company of at- 




TRANSMISSION OF GOVERNMENT DISPATCHES. 805 

laches rnsbing in between the magistrate, who is sitting on 
his tribunal, and the prisoner, who is some distance from him. 
In this way tlie magistrate is sometimes kept from seeing who 
actually receives the blows. Such a bribing of the inmates of 
the yamun requires the expenditure of a considerable sum of 
money, especially if the one who desires to escape a personal 
flagellation should be wealthy and accused of high crimes. 

Every document, in order to bo considered binding or gen- 
uine, issuing from a mandarin's establishment, must have his 
official stamp upon it, not his signature. The stamp is received 
when he enters upon oflice, and must be kept with great care ; 
for if it should be lost, or stolen, or burnt up, he would assured- 
ly be severely lined, or punished in some way. He would be 
fortunate if not degraded from office. Mandarins do not sign 
their proclamations or documents with their names. The 
stamp makes them official and authentic. 

The couriers who take government dispatches from one 
place to another are commonly called " horses of a thoasand 
/»" on account of their speed. It oftentimes occurs that some 
especial emergency, as a local rebellion, or scarcity of provi- 
sions or money for the army, requires the transmission of a 
dispatch with the utmost speed. At such times, in the ab- 
sence of railroads and telegraphs, the courier is furnished 
with some hen's feathers, which are usually placed in the top 
of his lantern, to indicate to all whom it may concern that ho 
carries mess.iges which demand the utmost speed. Such a 
messenger must be helped on his way with all possible celerity 
by all those whose business it is to assist in the transportation 
of government dispatches. It is asserted that in some parts 
of the empire such messages are sometimes transmitted at the 
rate of eight hundred li per day, or over two hundred English 
miles. The dispatch is contained in a parcel which is bound 
on the shoulders of the courier, who is changed at certain in- 
tervals, using boats or horses, or running on foot, as circum- 
stances show will be most speedy. 

Generally speaking, cases of murder are never investigated 
by the mandarin unless a formal complaint is made, on the 
same principle that he never arrests thieves imtil a complaint 
has been made against them. The underlings of the magis- 
trates often lend their help to do injustice to innocent parties 




806 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

in circumstances like the following : A dead body is clandes- 
tinely placed during the night on the premises of some person, 
as before his house or store, in order to injure him or to ex- 
tort money, by an enemy or a rogue. For example : The 
corpse of a beggar found in the street is placed on the prem- 
ises of a rich man. In the morning the rogue comes along and 
charges the rich man with having quarreled with and having 
killed his brother or cousin, or other relative, and threatens to 
apply the law to him. The man appears to be dreadfully 
shocked at finding the body of his dear relative under such 
circumstances in the street. If the nian really only wishes to 
extort money, he finally agrees to compromise the matter. 
" flis relative being dead, he can not be restored to life. A 
public prosecution of his murderer would not bring the dead 
back to his family and to his friends." In view of such phil- 
osophical and practical considerations, he is willing to desist 
from prosecution for a pecuniary consideration. Should the 
rich man, feeling that he was innocent of the crime of murder, 
and understanding the real facts in the case, refuse to silence 
the other party by giving him money, the latter has only to call 
to his aid a few of the underlings of some mandarin, and prom- 
ise them a share in the spoils. They come to the house or 
store of the rich man and make a great disturbance, as though 
sent by their master to inquire into the circumstances of the 
case. The rich man by this time has probably counted the 
expense in case the other party should really inform against 
him, and knowing that it would cost far less to settle the mat- 
ter at once than to wait until more harpies should arrive or a 
mock prosecution should have been instituted against him, has 
concluded to agree to the terms proposed by the other party, 
or make some offer which is accepted, and the matter drops. 
There is a large class of men who are none too good to engage 
in such an affair, and who are much feared and hated by the 
common people. They are exceedingly bold and violent, and 
are on good terms with the lowest class of official underlings. 
In every neighborhood is a local officer, corresponding to a 
village constable, who is of great help to his superior, the dis- 
trict magistrate, in keeping the peace. It is a part of his duty 
to prevent quarrels from occurring in his neighborhood, and 
report any disturbance of importance to his superior. Should 




ANNUAL TRIBUTE SENT TO PEKING. 807 

anj trouble arise which he can not quell or settle at once and 
Batisfactorily, it is his duty to send in a notice of the facts in 
the case as soon as possible to the district magistrate in whose 
limits his neighborhood is situated. Should he delay to do 
so he is liable to be severely whipped, or put in a cangue for 
a month or two, or be degraded from his position. It is also 
his business to report in regard to important lawsuits which 
relate to his neighborhood. He is the organ through whom 
the magistrate communicates to the residents of the neighbor- 
hood his will in regard to matters which contern them. It is* 
also his business to see that the villagers observe the regula- 
tions to promote the public interests which emanate with the 
magistrate. He acts the part of a policeman, permanently 
stationed at one place. His term of office usually continues 
during good behavior. Oftentimes it descends to his son, if 
he has one of sufficient years and discretion, when he dies or 
retires from the duties of his station. 

The title-deeds to sales of houses must be reported, in order 
to be stamped and taxed, before five years after the sale. The 
treasurer, on application through the district magistrate, at- 
taches a piece of paper to the deed, stamped in red with his 
official seal, and having also a few sentences relating to the 
deed written upon it. An unstamped deed would be worth- 
less five years after date, as it would justify the seizure by 
government of the property involved. A sale of land must 
be reported within three years, that its deed may be stamped 
and taxed in a similar manner. The rate of taxing is fixed by 
law, being usually eight or ten per cent, on the purchase mon- 
ey. A stamped deed is called a " red"^ deed, because it has 
the impress in red of the seal of the treasurer. An unstamped 
deed is referred to as a " irAt^e" deed. 

There is a singular custom or law relating to this place 
which must be annually observed, or the mandarin whose duty 
it is to attend to the matter would be severely reprimanded, 
or perhaps deprived of rank and office. An annual tribute of 
three kinds of fruit, for the production of which this place has 
become celebrated, must be sent on to Peking so as to arrive 
there at a certain time. These presents, as tribute^ are the 
loo€&jacket orange^ the olive^ and a certain kind of very fr.v 
grant but inedible fruit called usually " Buddha's hand." The 




308 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

oranges are required to be in Peking on the morning of new 
year's at the latest, so as to be used at the worship and sacri- 
fice in honor of Heaven by the emperor. As soon as oranges 
are in a state fit to be dispatched, a quantity is picked with 
care and packed in wooden buckets, and started off for Pe- 
king, carried by coolies under the charge of two officers, one 
civil and one military. If they should arrive there with only 
a large plateful of good ones, the grand object would be duly 
accomplished. Comparatively a large quantity are started off 
*for the capital, great allowance being made for rotting and 
spoiling. If none should arrive in season for use at the sacri- 
fices to Heaven on the first day of every new year, the offi- 
cers in charge would be punished for their tardiness, and the 
high mandarins here, whose business it is to attend to this 
important matter, would be liable to be fined or otherwise 
punished. The use of this kind of orange is considered felici- 
tous and lucky on new year's day here as well as at Peking. 
The olives and the Buddha's hands are sent on in mach the 
same way at the proper season of the year. 

It is a part of the official duties of mandarins to "«ar6 the 
sun and 7uoon when eclipsed ^ 

Prospective eclipses arc never noticed in the Im[>erial Cal- 
endar, published originally at Peking, and republished in the 
j)r()vinces. The imperial astronomers at the capital, a consid- 
erable time previous to a visible eclipse, inform the Board of 
Rites of its month, day, and hour. These officers send this 
intelligence to the viceroys or governors of the eighteen prov- 
inces of the empire. These, in turn, communicate the inform- 
ation to all the principal subordinate officers in the provinces 
of the civil and the military grade. The officers make ar- 
rangements to save the moon or the sun at the appointed 
time. On the day of the eclipse, or on the day preceding it, 
some of them put up a written notice in or near their yamuns 
for the information of the publia 

The Chinese generally have no rational idea of the canse of 
eclipses. The common explanation is that the son or the 
moon has experienced some disaster. Some even affirm that 
the object eclipsed is being devoured by an immense ravenous 
monster. This is the most popular sentiment in Fuhchaa in 
regard to the procuring cause of eclipses. All look upon the 




SAVING THE SUN AND MOON WHEN ECLIPSED. 309 

object eclipsed with wonder. Many are filled with apprehen- 
sion and terror. Some of the coramon people, as well as 
mandarins generally, enter upon some course of action, the ex- 
press object of which is to save the luminary from its dire 
calamity, or to rescue it from the jaws of its greedy enemy. 

Mandarins must act ofiicially, and in virtue of their being 
officers of government. Neither they nor the people seem to 
regard the inmiense distance of the celestial object as at all in- 
terfering with the success of their efforts. The various obsta- 
cles which ought apparently to deter them from attempting 
to save the object eclipsed do not seem to have occurred to 
them at all, or, if they have occurred, do not appear to be suf- 
ficient to cause them to desist from prosecuting their laudable 
endeavors. 

The high mandarins procure the aid of priests of the Tauist 




MAMUASIM lUVIMtt TllS SLN WUSM BULIPftlCU 




310 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

sect at their yamuns. These place an incense censer and two 
large candlesticks, for holding red candles or tapers, on a table 
in the principal reccption>room of the mandarin, or in the open 
space in front of it under the open heavens. 

At the cominenceraent of the eclipse the tapers are light- 
ed, and soon after the mandarin enters, dressed in his official 
robes. Taking some sticks of lighted incense in both hands, 
he makes his obeisance before or facing the table, raising and 
depressing the incense two or three times, according to the es- 
tablished fashion, before it is placed in the censer. Or some- 
times the incense is lighted and put in the censer by one of 
the priests employed. The officer proceeds to perform the 
high ceremony of kneeling down three times, and knocking 
his head on the ground nine times. Afler this he arises from 
his knees. Large gongs and drums near by are now beaten 
as loudly as possible. The priests begin to march slowly 
around the tables, reciting fonnulas, etc., w^hich marching they 
keep up, with more or less intermissions, until the eclipse has 
passed off. 

A uniform result always follows these official efforts to save 
the sun and the moon. They are invariably auccessfuL There 
is not a single instance recorded in the annals of the empire 
when the measures prescribed in instructions from the empe- 
ror's astronomers at Peking, and correctly carried out in the 
provinces by the mandarins, have not resulted in a complete 
rescue of the object eclipsed. Doubtless the vast majority of 
the common people in China believe that the burning of ta- 
pers and incense, the prostration of the mandarins, the beating 
of the gongs and drums, and the recitations on the part of the 
priests, are signally efficacious in driving away the voracious 
monster. They observe that the sun or the moon does not 
seem to be permanently injured by the attacks of its celestial 
enemy, although a half or nearly the whole appeared to have 
been swallowed up. This happy result is doubtless viewed 
with much complacency by the parties engaged to bring it 
about. 

The lower classes generally leave the saving of the sun or 
the moon, wlien eclipsed, to their mandarins, as it is a part of 
their official business. Some of the people occasionally beat 
in their houses a winnowing instrument, made of bamboo 




HOW THE VANITY OF THE EMPEROR IS FLATTERED. 811 

splints, on the occurrence of an eclipse. This gives out a loud 
noise. Some venture to assert that the din of this instrument 
penetrates the clouds as high as the very temple of Heaven it- 
self! The sailors connected with junks at this place, on the 
recurrence of a lunar eclipse, always contribute their aid to 
rescue the moon by beating their gongs in a most deafening 
manner. 

Without doubt, most of the mandarins understand the real 
occasion of eclipses, or, at least, they have the sense to per- 
ceive that nothing which they can do will have any effect upon 
the object eclipsed, or the cause which produces the phenom- 
enon ; but they have no optional course in regard to the mat- 
ter. They must comply w*ith established custom, and with 
the understood will of their superiors. The imperial astrono- 
mers, having been taught the principles of astronomy and the 
causes which produce eclipses by the Roman Catholic mission- 
aries a long while since, of course know that the common sen- 
timents on the subject arc as absurd as the common customs 
relating to it are useless. But the emperor and his cabinet 
cling to ancient practices, notwithstanding the clearest evi- 
dences of their false and irrational character. 

The blunders, or the ignorance, or the superstitions of the 
Chinese in regard to eclipses are sometimes made the occa- 
sion of flattering the vanity of the Emperor of China. Davis, 
in his History of China, remarks that during the dynasty of 
Sung, which ended about 12G0 A.D., an expected eclipse hav- 
ing failed to take place, " they congratulated the emperor that 
the heavens had dispensed with this omen of ill luck in his 
favor?^ Williams, in his Middle Kingdom, mentions that 
some clouds, on a certain occasion, having prevented the 
eclipse being visible, "M€ courtiers joyfully repaired to the 
emperor to felicitate him that the heavens^ touched by his vir- 
tues^ had spared him the pain of witnessing the ^eating of the 
sunr' 

It 2K)metime8 occurs that a high oflicer falls into disrepute 
at Peking, cither because he is really guilty of maladministra- 
tion, or because he lias some powerful enemy who is poisoning 
the minds of those -n^ho are in power against him, and he is re- 
quired to appear in the capital for trial with chains about his 
neck, and in the attitude of a felon. When an officer is com- 




812 MAKDABINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 

manded to " arrest and chaM^ a brother officer, he proceeds 
to arrest, chain, and forward him to Peking if ho niauifests 
any unwillingness to go, and if the exercise of force is neces- 
sary. It, however, seldom happens that positive force or per- 
sonal violence are employed. The man usually, as soon as he 
learns his fate, resigns his office, and provides himself with a 
light wooden or paper cangue for his neck, and with a small 
chain for his hands, arrests and chains himself ^ and starts as 
fast as possible for the capital of the empire. He delivers him- 
self into the custody of the proper tribunal there, and begs of 
the emperor the favor of a speedy examination and paoish- 
ment for his crimes. If he can get the start of the official or- 
der from Peking for his arrest, it is usually reckoned as worth 
considerable in his favor ; it seems to denote a due sense of 
his deserts, and that ho has no intention of endeavoring to 
thwart the administration of justice. It is utterly impossible 
for a falling mandarin to escape the oncers of the Tribunal of 
Punishment, and experience shows that the mandarin whose 
official integrity is maligned beyond endurance can not do 
better than to proceed to Peking and demand an examination, 
as if not afraid to meet the worst. At such times he uses his 
money freely in order to secure the friendship and influence 
of the high officials at the capital. 

Mandarins are sometimes condemned to suffer the penalty 
of death by strangulation for some flagrant dereliction of offi- 
cial duty, or for some willful violation of the laws which he did 
not succeed in concealing, etc. According to strict law^ there 
are many cases where mandarins ought to be deprived of Hfe 
as a punishment for their crimes. High mandarins oftentimes 
do not report the truth to the court at Peking because they 
are bribed not to report, or are prevented, from prudential rea- 
sons, from reporting it. They often pass over flagrant viola- 
tions of law by others high in office or power, hoping mutual- 
ly to shield and lielp each other — unless they are personal ene- 
mies. In cases where the facts become known at head-qiuir- 
ters, and the culprit should, according to law, lose his life and 
have his property confiscated to the government, high officials 
at Peking are very often bribed to intercede for him before 
the proper tribunal, and excuse his crimes by the invention of 
some plaiu^ible story. Such bribing costs a large sum. 




SELF-STRANGULATION.— SUICIDE. 818 

In case of the highest officers, as chancellors of the empire, 
or presidents of the six boards and viceroys of the provinces, 
when they have committed deeds for which the emperor wish- 
es to punish them capitally, instead of beheading them, he some- 
times, in his clemency, intimates his wishes by sending them 
a piece of silk or a silk cord. They understand the meaning 
of the silken present to be " strangle youradvea^^^ which they 
proceed to do. If they should hesitate too long, or decline al- 
together to commit suicide at the implied request of their im- 
perial master, they would soon lose their heads by decapita- 
tion. Self-strangulation is more honorable than beheading by 
the executioner, as the body is Icfl whole and unmutilated. 
Allowing those capitally convicted to take their own lives is 
considered a mark of especial favor on 'the part of the empe- 
ror, for which they are expected to return their grateful ac- 
knowledgments. Officers of low rank are seldom or never al- 
lowed the honor or the privilege of strangling themselves with 
a white cord or girdle 6f silk presented by the emperor. They 
are summarily beheaded unless they commit suicide on their 
own account and responsibility. Swallowing gold-leaf is a 
very popular way of committing suicide by mandarins after 
their condemnation, or when in despair of an honorable acquit- 
tal during the progress of their trial, or when some great disas- 
ter occurs for which they will be held responsible. 

When an officer has fallen largely behind in the amount of 
revenue which it is expected he will deliver over to the impe- 
rial treasury for government use, the high mandarins some- 
times decide to ^^ search his Ao?«^," in order to ascertain 
whether he is able to pay the sum for which he is in arrears, 
or whether he is really poor, as he of course represents him- 
self. The "house" which is searched is not the yamun in 
which he lives, but his patern.nl or ancestral home in another 
province, where his parents, if living, reside, and where it is 
surmised his property will be found. The search is instituted 
without his knowledge by men deputed by his superior man- 
darins. If they should find a large amount of ready money, 
or valuable property, or the titles to large possessions in other 
places, the inference would be natural and generally just that 
he was a dishonest man, and that he had intentionally defraud- 
ed the government, and sent the missing money to his ances- 

VOL.I.— O 




814 MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBOBDINATSa 

tral home, or caused it to be invested for his personal or his 
family's benefit. In such a case, he would be arrested and 
summarily punished, unless he could account for the existence 
of so much wealth, or unless he should succeed in bribing his 
superiors to take a favorable view of the matter. I^ however, 
the searching of his house should indicate that he was really 
poor, he would generally be dealt leniently with by the impe- 
rial agents, especially if he or his family should be able to per- 
suade them to report favorably to their superiors. The search- 
ing of his paternal home instead of his actual residence is based 
on the presumption that, if he were wealthy, sufficient evidence 
would be furnished there. His parents, or the members of the 
family at home, would be living in luxury, the grounds and 
buildings would be spacious and kept in good repair. Chinese 
mandarins are famous for sending their gains of office home, or 
away from the place where they play the mandarin and ac- 
quire it. 

It is not a very uncommon occurrence for an officer of high 
rank to be fined the amount of his salary for one month, or 
two months, or a year, as a punishment for negligence in the 
discharge of his duties, or for some maladministration not re- 
quiring a heavier punishment. The occasions where the manda- 
rins may be thus fined are numerous ; but, as their stated al- 
lowance from the imperial coffers is but a small portion of 
their actual receipts, the stoppage of salary for a short time is 
a matter of little pecuniary consequence ; and it is regarded as 
a thing of import only as it affects their character and pros- 
pects of advancement in rank and purse with their superiors. 

In cases where maladmiRistration is of a too flagrant char- 
acter to be punished simply by a fine, sometimes recourse is 
had to a heavier degree of punishment — that of degrading him 
from his rank and titles, but obliging him to continue to dis- 
charge his official duties. This punishment is generally only 
temporary. His cap, when worn during this period, must be 
without its button, and the feather denoting his rank or office 
must be laid aside until he has cleared up his character, or 
made for himself a new reputation. The occasions are some- 
times comparatively trivisd when a magistrate is required to 
perform his official duties deprived of his rank. It is frequent- 
ly done when there is a long delay in paying over the required 




RESiaNING OFFICE ON THE DEATH OF A PABENT. 816 

amount of revenue into the treasury. It acts as a kind of ar- 
gument, expediting the settlement of his accounts. 

When one degraded from his rank, but retained in office, is 
unable to clear himself from the charges against him in a rea- 
sonable time, to the satisfaction of his superiors, the next grade 
of punishment is to remove him from the official trust. In 
some cases ho is degraded from his rank and removed from of- 
fice at the same time. He returns to the position of a citizen, 
liable to arrest and further punishment, should the punishment 
already inflicted not be deemed sufficiently severe. Often- 
times ho is commanded to appear as soon as possible at Pe- 
king, to be tried by the proper tribunal. 

There are occasions when it is made the duty of a mandarin 
to resign his office for a specified time or for a special reason, 
expecting to take office again when the time has expired or 
when the reason no longer exists. For example : 

Every civil mandarin, on the occasion of the death of a par- 
ent, must immediately resign his office, announce the sorrow- 
ful fact to the emperor by a memorial, and ask leave to go and 
mourn the usual period of three years at his ancestral home. 
He need not wait until an answer is returned. Such requests 
are never refused ; and not to resign one's office, and return to 
the home of the deceased parent, and engage in the established 
rites, would be a crime not tolerated by Chinese law or Chi- 
nese custom. The duties of his vacated office will be cared 
for by the high officers of the province for the time being, un- 
til other arrangements can bo made. Military officers of the 
three highest ranks only are allowed to resign their appoint- 
ments and return home to mourn three years on the death of 
a parent. Military officers of some lower ranks are allowed to 
be absent a shorter period. Such a resignation of office often- 
times produces 'considerable confusion in the administration 
of government, but the derangement is regarded as unimpor- 
tant compared with the sin of violating the ancient custom of 
resigning office and returning homo to mourn, which custom 
Confucius himself honored and observed on the death of his 
mother, when he held office. The expense and fatigue to the 
filial son are also sometimes very great, as when he holds of- 
fice in the southern part of the empire, while his ancestral 
home is in a northern province ; but such considerations are 




816 HANDABINS AND THEIR SnBORDmATE& 

of little moment compared with the transcendent importance 
of showing due regard to the memory of a deceased parent. 
It will not answer for a high mandarin to fail in the exhibition 
of filial piety if he wishes to stand well with the imperial gov- 
ernment or with the people whom he governs. 

When a mandarin has been a long while absent from his 
parents, or when he hears that they, or one of them, are very 
ill, it is very creditable for him to ask permission of the empe- 
ror to leave his oflfice and its duties for a year or two, for the 
purpose of going home and taking care of his parents. Should 
he be made acquainted with their dangerous illness, and not 
petition for a release from office to go and vbit them, he would 
be charged with a want of filial love, which is one of the most 
serious charges that can be made against the character of a 
man in China. And should the emperor, through the offi- 
cials of the appropriate board, treat lightly an application from 
one of his servants in the provinces for leave to go home and 
visit his parents, on account of the great length of his absence 
from them, or because he has learned of their dangerous ill- 
ness, ho would be liable to be regarded as teaching men to 
think little of their parents, and to be unfilial to them, and, by 
inference, unfaithful to himself, the great father and mother of 
the people in all the empire. If the circumstances of the case 
seem really to require the absence from office of the petition- 
er, and the condition of the empire will admit of a favorable 
reply to the petition of the filial mandarin, permission is often 
given to him to do as he formally requested. The example of 
such men is regarded as praiseworthy, and is held up to ap- 
probation and imitation. 

It sometynes occurs that a mandarin asks permission of the 
emperor to resign his office and return home, for the purpose 
of remaining with his aged and infirm parentis as long as they 
live. lie states the urgent circumstances of the case : that 
he has been long absent ; that they are very aged, etc. Be- 
fore granting such a request, the emperor usually causes inqui- . 
ries to bo made in regard to the circumstances of the parents 
of the professedly fi]ial mandarin by or through the high offi- 
cials of the province where they reside. If the facts arc as 
stated by the suppliant, and the emperor's advisors regard him 
as really desirous of spending his time with his parents as long 




SINGULAR CAUSES FOB RESIGNING OFFICE. 817 

as they live, because of his filial affection for them — ^not be- 
cause ho wishes to enjoy or invest the money he has already 
made — his application is granted, unless there are manifest and 
urgent considerations of state which make it desirable that he 
should postpone the gratification of his filial heart to a more 
remote period. Such applicants are always treated with re- 
spect and honor, even if their requests are refused. 

Not unfrequently does it occur that a man who is appointed 
to ofiice is in duty bound to ofier his resignation because some 
member of his family, or some relative or very intimate friend, 
has an appointment in the same province of inferior rank to 
his own. For instance, if a son should be appointed to the 
governorship of a province in which his father already held the 
office of a prefect, or a district magistrate, or any other office 
lower in rank than that to which he was appointed, it would 
be the duty of the son to resign his office without delay ; or if a 
younger brother should be appointed to some office in a prov- 
ince where his elder brother had official employment less honor- 
able or less elevated in rank than the one to which the younger 
brother was appointed, the latter is required to tender his res- 
ignation. The general rule is, that the more honorable in fam- 
ily relations may not be in office of a lower rank under one 
less honorable. A son may not hold office in the same prov- 
ince of higher rank than his father ; a younger brother may 
not be put over his elder brother ; a nephew may not be a 
Aiandarin of superior rank to his uncle in the same province, 
etc. On the same general principle of reasoning, d la Chinois^ 
.two warm and mutual friends must not hold office in the same 
province of different ranks. A greater must not worship the 
less ; and equals must not be placed in official positions so that 
one must worship the other as higher or lower ; and friends 
must not " worship" each other. Such a relation of things 
would be contrary to the order of nature. As a general rule, 
the emperor is also desirous that relatives and mutual friends 
should not be employed in office near each other, lest they 
should favor each other when occasion ofiers at the expense 
of justice, or lest they should combine to oppress and injure 
the people. This matter is a difficult one to regulate in China. 

Sometimes a mandarin asks to be relieved from the cares of 
official responsibility for a short time in consequence of being 




318 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

wearied oat with his previous labors, secretly intending often- 
times never to take office again. The higher class of officers 
mast get such permission from thf dignitaries at Peking, and 
the lower class of officers must obtain it from their superiors 
living in the provincial capital. None dare ordinarily leave 
their official positions without consent previously obtained; 
if they did, they would be arrested and severely punished by 
degradation or by fine, or both. 

Mandarins who have amassed considerable wealth are often- 
times anxious to retire temporarily or permanently from gov- 
ernment service, in order to secure the wealth and the titles 
and honors they have gained. If they remain in office they 
are liable to be fined, or degraded, or severely punished for in- 
nocent mistakes, and for unsuccessful efforts to do what falls 
to their duty to do. Their present office may be a poor and 
scarcely remunerative one, and they are fearful of falling in ar- 
rears in revenue. If they can retire from office with their 
riches and their rank intact, they will have the reasonable 
prospect of handing down the former to their children, and of 
enjoying the latter, and the importance and the influence 
which it gives as resident gentry or retired mandarins in their 
native village or city. Their applications are seldom granted 
unless they bribe largely the high officials to report favorably, 
and to use their influence at court in their behalf. 

Officers of an advanced age sometimes ask for leave to re- 
tire from office on the score of their old age and their incrcai- 
ing infirmities. The emperor is generally anxious to retain 
in office his long-tried and experienced 6er\'ants as long as 
he can, and therefore is always loth to grant permission for 
them to retire to private life. Unless they can bring the em- 
peror or his confidential or influential advisers to believe that 
they are really becoming more and more infirm, blind, or deaf, 
etc., it is usually quite difficult to obtain a favorable reply to 
their requests for a furlough on account of old age. Tlierc is 
considerable danger of urgently pressing the request for res- 
pite on this account, if there is not most manifest reason for 
it. The emperor may become displeased, and deprive the pe- 
titioner of his honors and titles, and let him go home as a plain 
citizen, which is a result not at all desired, and which is re- 
garded as really tantamount to dismissal from office in disgrace. 




SETTING A THIEF TO CATCH A THIEF. 819 

When sick, mandarins frequently ask leave of absence or per- 
mission to resign office, in order to return home and take meas- 
ures to cure themselves. Sometimes the emperor, in a mani- 
festly urgent case, grants the permission to resign. At other 
times he permits them to remain nominally in office, but re- 
lieved of its cares for a time, thus enabling them to employ 
medical aid without the necessity of attending to official du- 
ties at the same time, expecting them to resume the responsi- 
bilities of office as soon as they recover. This is a very com- 
mon excuse for trying to rid themselves of official duty, and 
danger, and responsibility, when they are really not very un- 
well, and when the actual reason for desiring to be allowed to 
retire is to obtain an opportunity to secure or invest their 
property in some profitable manner, and to enjoy in private 
life the honor and rank which they have already attained in 
government employ. When this is suspected to be the real 
cause of preferring a request to be allowed to retire from of- 
fice " on account of sickness," of course the request is prompt- 
ly denied. There is a saying here to the effect that those who 
feign sickness in order to go to their ancestral homes and en- 
joy their wealth and honors, will be sure to become really ill 
there, as a punishment for their duplicity and mendacity to- 
ward their sovereign. 

A very singular state of things prevails in this part of China 
relating to the management of thieves, and the methods to bo 
taken in order to obtain stolen property. The Chinese gov- 
ernment seem to act on the adage "«€< a thief to catch a 
thief ^^ There is a class of men connected with civil official 
establishments, but living more or less among the people, who 
have the superintendence of matters relating to thieves and 
thieving. These men enjoy the reputation of having been 
great thieves themselves before they were recognized as chiefs 
of this branch of police. It is currently reported among the 
people that many of these men were detected in stealing, and, 
instead of being punished, they were pardoned on their agree- 
ing to catch other thieves and to aid the magistrates to obtain 
possession of stolen property. The people affirm that they are 
head thieves, or chief of the local robbers which infest neigh- 
borhoods, and know, in case of any particular thefl, who the 
robbers are, and where the stolen goods are deposited, be- 




320 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

cause they instructed the thieves where to rob and where to 
carry the property taken, promising to protect them. After 
the robbery has been committed the thief-catchers are sum- 
moned, and make a great ado, pretending to be sincerely de- 
sirous of recovering the property and ascertaining the thieves, 
and having them arrested and punished. Unless, however, 
they are bribed largely to recover the property, it is seldom 
ever seen again by its owner. If the matter after a while 
should die away, they divide the spoils or the profits with the 
thieves. If, however, the party which was robbed does not 
give up the a^r, but makes repeated applications to the mag- 
istrate whose duty it is to attend to the affair, and there seems 
to be no other way of proceeding, the magistrate insists on 
the thief-catchers finding out the robbers and restoring the 
goods. The thief-catchers, in case they perceive their magis- 
trate to be really in earnest, usually produce some one who 
confesses to the robbery, and perhaps a small part of the 
goods stolen is restored. The thief is flogged and put in the 
cangue for a month or two, and the matter is dropped. The 
people have no faith in the honesty of the official thief-catch- 
ers. They have the reputation of being partners or personally 
concerned in the principal places where stolen goods are de- 
posited for a time, and afterward ofl^ered for sale. The places 
where they are sold generally are an illegal kind of pawn- 
shops, not authorized or recognized by government, but sim- 
ply tolerated. It is exceedingly difficult to arrest thieves and 
recover stolen property, on account of the complicity of the 
official thief-catch ei*s with the real thieves, and their pecuniary 
interest in the profits of successful robbery. 

The men connected with military yamuns, required to act 
the part of thief-catchers, are known by a different name from 
those belonging to civil yamuns. These are generally com- 
mon soldiers, who are employed to patrol the street at night 
In this way they have opportunity to find out, if they really 
desire to do so, all who in their section of the city or subnrhs 
are regular or professional thieves. The theory is that they 
secretly watch any who are out thieving until they have en- 
tered a house. They remain outside, and when the thieves 
come forth with their plunder they seize them, and restore the 
property to its owners, but deliver the robbers over to their 




ONCE A THIEF, AFTERWARD A THIEF. 821 

mandarins for punishment. The theory is a very fine one, but 
the practice does not correspond to it. They divide the spoils 
with the robbers, and let them go. The lion's share falls to 
the lot of their official protectors. 

It is the current belief among the people that those who 
have once stolen, and have shared the plunder with the thief- 
catchers, may never lead honest lives again if they continue to 
reside in the place, but must rob and plunder, dividing the 
profits with the official thief-catchers. If the former are after- 
ward seen by the latter with any valuable property in their 
possession in the streets, they claim a part of it ; and if they 
have any respectable clothing upon their persons, they strip 
them of it, on the charge of being robbers. If they do not 
yield peaceably, the thief-catchers proceed to beat and abuse 
them, and threaten to take them into custody, and deliver 
them into the hands of their masters as thieves. It is said 
that many who would be as honest, and lead as exemplary 
lives as the majority of the population, are obliged to become 
thieves and robbers, sharing the profits with the thief-police, 
in order to gain a living, after they have once been detected m 
pilfering or stealing. 

Common fame affirms that every mandarin receives valuable 
presents more or less regularly from subordinates. 

On arriving at the place of his mandarinate, it is customary, 
in this part of the empire, for clerks and inferior officials con- 
nected with his own establishment to make presents to the 
new mandarin. He expects a present graduated in value ac- 
cording to the comparative lucrativeness of the stations which 
the officers fill. The amount from each is fixed by custom. 
Unless they should give it on the arrival of the mandarin, pro- 
fessedly as an expression of their satisfaction and respect, but 
really in order to ingratiate themselves in his good will, mat- 
ters would not go smoothly with them. They would be fre- 
quently faulted and required to do their work over again, etc. 
They give the customary present to the mandarin, as soon as 
he arrives, as a bribe to treat them well. 

All of the officers inferior to the new-arrived in the district, 
prefecture, or province, who are under his supervision, are ex- 
pected to make him a present. The district magistrate ex- 
pects a present from all who arc beneath him, the prefect from 

Oj 




822 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

all who are beneath him, and the governor from the officers 
under his jurisdiction who report to him, and the viceroy from 
all the principal officers in the two provinces under his con- 
tro]. The value of these presents from the different officials 
who greet their new superior mandarin in this manner is reg- 
ulated by custom, and has respect to the comparative rank 
and profits of the positions occupied by them. Those who do 
not make the customary token of respect may be sure that 
they are marked, and that they will suffer the consequence of 
their violation of custom in the subsequent inattention and ill 
will of their superior. Some of these presents, given by a sin- 
gle subordinate to his superior of high rank and in a high of- 
fice, are said to amount to several hundred dollars, especially 
if he has a great favor which he hopes to gain from him, or if 
he desires to be promoted through his influence. It is easy to 
perceive that on the arrival of a viceroy or of a provincial gov- 
ernor at the place where ho enters upon office, he ordinarily, 
before he has performed much work, receives in the aggregate 
a large sum of ready money, as presents or as bribes, from the 
large staff of subordinate officers 'resident in various parts of 
the province. Mandarins of lower rank receive much smaller, 
but still a comparatively large amount of money from their 
subordinate officers. 

The newly-arrived mandarin is to a large extent tinder the 
influence of the subordinates whom he finds connected with 
his yaraun. He is usually accompanied by a number of family 
relatives and confidential advisers who aid him. Still, he is 
necessarily very much under the control or influence of those 
who are attached to the establishment. The new mandarin is 
very frequently entirely unacquainted with the customs of the 
place and with its dialect. He finds sometimes several tens 
or scores of men belonging to the yamun who are strangers, 
and whom ho can not understand when they converse With 
each other in their vernacular. The statement that he is to a 
great extent under the control or influence of his subordinates 
connected with his yamun will be evident in the course of the 
following observations : 

There are a largo number of men, called " Great Sires^^^ al- 
ways found in yamuns of the higher rank, with whom the 
chief mandarin has constant intercourse. 




INFLUENTIAL POSITION OF INTBBPBETEB& 823 

Some of the great sires act as interpreters to the manda- 
rin. The mandarin, being generally from another province, 
requires an interpreter to explain the dialect spoken by na- 
tives of the place who may have business to do with him, if 
they can not speak the court dialect. In case of a criminal 
trid where the culprit is from a distant part of the province, 
and speaks the brogue of that section, it would be necessary 
for an interpreter to translate the language of the culprit to 
the mandarin, and the language of the mandarin to the culprit. 

Should the great sire for any reason desire to favor the per- 
son interrogated, it is sometimes an easy matter to put a 
plausible coloring upon his statements, especially as he readily 
learns, from constant intercourse with his master, the manner 
in which he may dupe him ; and, unless he should receive a 
bonus from the party interrogated by the mandarin, it is very 
easy to misinterpret, or to fail of interpreting the whole truth, 
and nothing but the truth, to that party from the mandarin, or 
from the mandarin to that party. It is for the interest of the 
mandarin to gain and keep the good-will of his interpreter, and 
it is also for the interest of the other party to stand well with 
him. Without the use of much imagination, it is not difficult 
to perceive that the mandarin necessarily comes under the in- 
fluence of his great sires to a large extent. 

Another of these great sires has the charge of the entrance- 
door to the yamun. All who desire to see the resident man- 
darin must have their cards of introduction, or their visit- 
ing cards, received and passed along by him or his assistants. 
He levies a contribution from those who wish to see his mas- 
ter called '^ the door-parcel." Sometimes he demands an ex- 
orbitant sum before he will receive and pass along the card, 
and announce the arrival of a stranger who wishes to see the 
mandarin on urgent business. On the arrival of a new incum- 
bent of office at the yamun whose door-keeper he is, he gener- 
ally reaps a large harvest, as a great number of official visitors 
must call to pay their respects to their superior. Unless the 
inferior mandarins call to see him or send in their cards, the 
newly-arrived will be offisnded at their want of politeness; but 
to succeed in doing this they must come to terms with the 
chief door-keeper. 

Only a few years ago, a high official in the city, recently ap- 




824 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

pointed, having arrived, was waited upon by all his subordi- 
nates except one, who was a distant relative. He did not ap- 
pear until afler comparatively a long time, and then he found 
bis superior in an unpleasant mood. In reply to the remark 
that he had not called, or even sent in his card, the late-caller 
said that he had been to the door several times, but the door- 
keeper had demanded a present of several hundred taels, a 
sum which he deemed exorbitant, and had declined to give, 
and that he had therefore returned to his own yamun without 
paying his respects. He farther stated that he had to force 
his way in at that time, the door-keeper demanding a very 
high sum, and attempting to obstruct his passage. On hear- 
ing this, the high ofliciars wrath against his guest was molli- 
fied, and diverted toward his door-keeper, whom he embraced 
an early opportunity to reprimand sharply for his extortion, 
bamboo severely, and dismiss from his position. It is not ev- 
ery guest who would be tolerated in expressing dissatisfaction 
with the exorbitant extortion practiced by the door-keeper of 
the mandarin upon whom he was calling. Such comnlaints 
would in ordinary cases probably make him personally obnox- 
ious with his host, and certainly such would be the result with 
his underlings. On occasion of making presents to the man- 
darin on the recurrence of his birthday, and of the great festi- 
vals during the year in accordance with established customs, 
the door-keeper must be largely bribed by those who would 
show their respects and intimate their congratulations to his 
master, else ho will not allow their presents and the accom- 
panying card to be taken into the premises. After a success- 
ful application for an office in the bestowment of the hiijh 
mandarin, his door-keeper is usually sure to fleece the appli- 
cant when he comes at the appointed time to receive his cre- 
dentials and return his thanks ; for, unless he calls to receive 
his credentials at the appointed time, the mandarin would be 
displeased at his want of punctuality, and might possibly 
change his mind ; and the other party can not proceed to the 
place of his mandarinate until he has obtained the requisite 
documents. The deeply-interested caller can do uq better 
than come to terms with the door-keeper. 

Among the permanent attaches, during good behavior, to a 
mandarinate, is a class of men usually called the mandarin's 




HOW A MANDARIN ENGAGES HIS TEACHER. 826 

"teacher" or "adviser." Every civil mandarin has at least 
one whom he regards as his right-hand man and his chief 
" teacher," who really is indispensable to him. He usually has 
been a long while connected with that mandarinate, and is ac- 
quainted with the recorded decisions of his master's predeces- 
sors, and with the laws bearing upon the matters generally in- 
vestigated and decided at that yamun, and is familiar with lo- 
cal customs, sentiments, and feelings. In regard to these sub- 
jects the new occupant of the office is at first quite ignorant. 
In fact, he is often quite dependent on his "teacher," who is 
always a man of talent and experience. In regard to most 
cases ho is consulted and his opinion obtained. He is always 
treated with great respect by the mandarin ; eats at the same 
table with him, and occupies the post of honor, being the man- 
darin's guest according to Chinese notions of etiquette. 

The process which it is customary for a mandarin to adopt 
at this place, when he wishes to engage the services of any 
particular individual to be his " teacher" for a year, or to take 
the supervision of any particular department in his yamun, is 
like this : he prepares a large sheet of red paper, and on it 
writes his invitation, stating the business he desires to have 
him do, and the salary he offers him, and when to bo paid, 
whether monthly or quarterly. In signing this document, the 
mandarin often styles himself " his stupid younger brotlier?^ 
This paper and his card he sends by some one to the individ- 
ual, together with a present of ten or fifteen dollars, more or 
less. If the man receives the present and the document, and 
retains them, it is understood that he accepts the terms and 
consents to fill the station. He considers himself engaged for 
a year. But if he declines to receive the present with the red 
paper and card, sending them back, the meaning is that he is 
dissatisfied with something, or that it is impossible for him to 
accept, being engaged or in feeble health. In this case the 
mandarin must make another offer if ho wishes to secure his 
services, or ho must look out for another suitable person to 
act as teacher. 

In connection with mandarin establishments of the first 
rank in the provincial city will bo found six separate offices 
or boards, in imitation of the corresponding six boards at the 
imperial capital. The head clerk of each of these offices is a 




826 MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBOBDINATES. 

man of ability, and well acquainted with the history and the 
condition of his department* The first relates to offices and 
vacancies; the second relates to revenue, as provisions and 
moneys received for taxes ; the third relates to official cer- 
emonies and rites, as sacrificing in spring and autumn ; the 
fourth relates to war, as the number of soldiers, their pay and 
rations ; the fifth relates to punishment, as regards degree and 
kind ; the sixth relates to public works, as building and re- 
pairs. These head clerks are paid out of government funds a 
regular and handsome salary. After they have served with 
credit for six years, they are entitled to the honorary reward 
of wearing a button on their caps, denoting the sixth degree 
of rank, conferred by the emperor. It is manifest that every 
new incumbent of the mandarinate is dependent upon these 
men to a very great extent in regard to the details of their 
departments, as well as in regard to the proper decision of im- 
portant questions which concern them. Their opinions are 
oflentiraes of necessity of more value, and generally much 
ne«irer the requirement of the law, than his opinions on dispu- 
ted and delicate points. 

These head men sometimes work under the personal super- 
vision of the mandarin their master, and they submit their re- 
ports to Peking, and public notices for the region where they 
live, to him for criticism and correction. These are issued in 
his name, and have his official seal. They are men of ready 
talent, quick in the use of the pencil, and possessed of much 
more than an average amount of general ntelligence. When 
they and the principal " teacher" agree well with each other, 
every thing usually works smoothly ; but when they are not 
on good terms with him, the wheels of government turn with 
friction, producing oftentimes actual enmity and ill will. 




ICAKDARmS GENERALLY UNPOPULAR. 827 



CHAPTER Xin. 

MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES — Continued. 

Mandarins sometimes popular. — '* Umbrellas from ten thonsand of the Peo- 
ple." — "Garments from ten thousand of the People." — Sons in Office 
obtain Titles of Rank for Parents living or dead. — Peacock Feathers be- 
stowed as Rewards. — Transference of Titles of Honor. — Policemen con- 
nected with Yamuns detested. — Seizing and torturing Relatives of Cul- 
prits. — ** White Market.*' — Mandarins held responsible for large Confla- 
grations. — Manuscript official daily Gazettes. — No Newspapers for the 
Million. — People instructed by public Proclamations. — Exhortations to 
snbfcribc Money for Use of Government.— Office obtained by Purchase 
or by Bribery. — First Class literary Gradtiatcs of third Rank enter on 
Office at once. — Legal Mpdes of Torture and of Punishment : Inferior and 
superior Classes. — Wearing the Canguc. — Beating on the Cheeks. — Beat- 
ing on the Posteriors.— Squeezing the Fingers. — Squeezing the Ankles. — 
Imprisonment. — Beheading. — ** Cutting into small Pieces" before Decap- 
itation. — Strangulation. — Banishment beyond the Frontiers. — Banishment 
three thousand Li from Home. — Banishment one thousand Li. — Favors 
shown to Criminals by Grace of the Emperor. — Illegal Modes of Torture 
and of Ihmishment : Fastened on a Bedstead.- Frame of the flowery Eye- 
brow. — Monkey holding a Peach. — Standing in a Cage. — Smoking the 
Head in a Tube. — A Shirt made of Iron Wire. — Hot-water Snake. —Whip 
of Hooks. — Kneeling on Chains or Bits of Crockery. — Common Imtunlaw- 
Jkl Practices : Relating to Gambling. — Keeping of Brothels. — Private and 
unlicensed Pawn-shops. — Clandestine Manufacture or Sale of Salt. — 
Counterfeiting Bank-bills. — Counterfeiting Cash and deteriorating Silver. 

Few mandarins aro popular, and havo the confidence and 
esteem of the people over whom they rule. They generally 
are too desirous to become rich to administer aflfairs with jus- 
tice, usually deciding the causes which are brought before 
their tribunals in favor of those who give them the most mon- 
ey as presents or bribes. But there are exceptions to the 
above remarks, which aro the more honorable and noticeable 
because they are few. Some mandarins are universally spoken 
favorably of by the people, because of the general regard to 
justice which they evince in their decisions, and on account 
of their evident desire to promote the happiness and the pros- 




328 MANDABINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATEa 

perity of their subjects. When they die in office, their death 
is regarded as a public calamity ; and when their term of of- 
fice expires, and they are transf(#red to some other station, 
their departure is regarded as a public loss. 

It is sometimes the custom, when such a popular officer de- 
parts, for the rich people and the gentry to join together and 
bear the expense of presenting him with one or more umbrel- 
las of state, made in a rich style. From this circumstance 
they are called ^'' umbrellas from ten thousand of the peopled 
It is presented in the name of the people. It is made gen- 
erally out of red satin or of red silk, having three tiers of 
folds or flounces. Usually the names of the principal donors 
are put upon the outside of it in golden letters. When he de- 
parts from his yamun, en route to another place where he is 
to discharge the duties of office again, this umbrella is carried 
in procession in connection with his own proper retinue of 
lictors, servants, etc. Generally, also, a large number of -thoM 
who live in the place which he is leaving join in the procession 
for a distance. This umbrella is received with great pleasure 
by the popular mandarin. It is a source of real joy and satis- 
faction to him and to his family, as, when spontaneously pre- 
sented, it is a proof of his having the affections and confidence 
of the community. 

On the same principle, and for the same reason, sometimes 
a certain kind of outside official garment is made out of rich 
red satin, at the expense and in the name of the people, and 
presented to him about the time of his departure. This is 
called a ^^ garment from ten thousand of the peopie.''^ The 
names of the most prominent of the contributors are placed 
on the outside in golden letters. When presented it is borne 
on a kind of pavilion, so as to be seen by the public, accom- 
panied by a band of music. This kind of popular testimonial 
to the character of its recipient is regarded as much more hon- 
orable than the umbrella of state, and is much more rarely 
given. It is a mark of the greatest respect and confidence. 

It is contrary to iho principles of Chinese filial piety for a 
son to enjoy a title of high rank and honor without getting a 
title of higher rank and honor for his paternal ancestor. Ac- 
cording to law, a dutiful son must ask the emperor to confer 
upon his father a title of rank one degree higher than his own. 




peacock's feathers bestowed as rewards. 829 

If the son is of the third rank, his father should be of the sec- 
ond rank. The mother of the hopeful and dutiful son also re- 
ceives a proper and corresponding title. Whether living or 
dead, the parent must be honored if his son is honored. 

One of the rapst common and most valued marks of imperi- 
al favor and approbation (promotion in rank and office except- 
ed) bestowed upon civil or military officers as a reward for 
their faithful services, is one of a certain kind of feathers, gen- 
erally called peacock's feathers. There are various kinds of 
these feathers, each kind indicating a certain degree of honor, 
or the comparative value put upon the services which the em- 
peror wishes to reward and to commemorate. One kind is 
spoken of as the "^oirer" feather, another as the ^^greerC* feath- 
er, another as the ^^ one-eyed''^ feather, another as the "^tro- 
«y€C?" feather, and another as the " three^yed^^ feather. These 
are treasured up as marks of great honor by the recipients, 
and worn on public occasions. By simply inspecting the feath- 
er worn by a mandarin, and regarding its color, or whether it 
has one or more " eye^," he who is acquainted with the com- 
parative value set upon these things understands the degree 
of approbation which the emperor has been pleased to bestow 
upon the wearer. One of the great incentives to bravery on 
the part of soldiers is that of expecting to receive the reward 
of wearing a peacock's feather bestowed by the emperor. 

When a mandarin considers himself under lasting obliga- 
tions to a family relative (beside his father and mother) for 
services done him in former times, he sometimes endeavors to 
reward the person by obtaining some high title from the em- 
peror for himself, and then receiving permission to transfer it 
to the individual. The title sought for is sometimes of a high- 
er rank than the one enjoyed by the mandarin. The emperor 
is specially requested to transfer it to the person designated, 
not so much to bestow a favor upon the petitioner as to re- 
ward merit, and to indicate his approbation of the kindness 
shown to one who ailerward rose to high official dignity. 
For example, the parents of the petitioner may have deceased 
while he was very young, and the individual referred to ifcight 
have received the orphan lad into his family, and educated 
him with great care and wisdom, resulting in his becoming a 
high mandarin. 




330 MANDARINS AND THEIB SnBORDINATK& 

The principle of transferring honors and titles which are of 
a lower rank than those enjoyed by the mandarin himself upon 
some of his family ralatives, in return or as a reward for senr- 
ices formerly rendered, is also recognized by the laws or reg- 
ulations of the land. The prospect of a talented but destitute 
lad hereafter becoming a high officer of government is some- 
times a powerful motive with his richer and more fortunate 
relatives for treating him well and assisting in his education. 

Every yamun has one or more head constables or policemen 
connected with it, whose principal employment is to arrest 
those who are charged with crimes. The position of the head 
man of these constables is oflen bought or obtained by brib- 
ery, and at other times it is bestowed as a reward for faithful 
services. If there is a large amount of business for them to 
do, they amass considerable money by their oppressive and 
extortionate course. They, as' a class, are universally detest- 
ed. Respectable people do not care to be associated with 
them in any way. They become very hard-hearted'and unjust 
men. They abuse and oppress those who are accused of crime 
and those who are convicted of crime, demanding and oflen 
receiving large sums of money from the wealthy who fall into 
their clutches. They often enforce the giving of money, or 
treating with wine or opium, by the families to which the ac- 
cused or the condemned belong, by destroying or injuring the 
chairs, or the tables, or the crockery which come in their way. 
The Chinese dread, as a great curse, having official business to 
do with them, on account of their lawless and extortionate de- 
mands, enforced with violence. Such a course is illegal, but 
there is generally no method of redress. 

It frequently occurs, when the constables can not find the 
man their master bids them arrest, they seize, imprison, tor- 
ture, and cross-question some near relative of the missing man 
in order to find out the place of his concealment. This is a 
very unjust and cruel course to pursue, but one which is au- 
thorized by custom and practice, if not by the laws. It is 
done on the supposition that the relative arrested is privy to 
thefl^ce of concealment, and perhaps interested in his escape. 
Whin he reveals the place where the suspected man is con- 
cealed, and he has been actually arrested and imprisoned, tbe 
relative is usually set at liberty on paying the policemen and 




MANDARINS RESPONSIBLE FOR FIRE& 881 

the jailors their fees for their trouble in regard to him. In 
this land of lawful lawlessness on the part of constables and 
mandarins in regard to suspected persons, it is impossible for 
friends and relatives to secrete one long from those who are 
seeking for him on account of the brutal course pursued to- 
ward his family. It usually occurs that the man who gives 
the constables considerable trouble to arrest and imprison, 
so as to be on hand when the mandarin desires to examine 
him, fares the worse after his actual arrest. They ohm treat 
him more cruelly, and make more extortionate demands as a 
compensation for their extra trouble. 

It is the custom for shop-keepers located near the scene of 
any extensive disorder produced by mobs in the street or a 
fire, which calls together a rabble, to close their establish- 
ments by putting up the thick and long boards which form 
the front of their shops, just as they do in the night, lest they 
should be robbed. This is called ^^ white market,''^ and is an 
unlawful course for the people to pursue, or, rather, it is a 
course which the mandarins are anxious should not be pur- 
sued, lest unhappy consequences should result to themselves. 
They are held responsible for the preservation of the peace, 
and for protecting the people in an uninterrupted prosecution 
of their lawful calling. The existence of such a state of affairs 
as to oblige the people in self-defense to close their stores in 
daylight would be interpreted to the disadvantage of the man- 
darin in charge. He would be liable to degradation in rank, 
if not from ofiice, if known to his superiors. He comes at once 
with his followers, not only to arrest those who make the dis- 
turbance, but also to persuade the people to open their estab- 
lishments. The existence, and especially the continuance of 
the closing of the shops, indicates incompetency on the part 
of the mandarin in charge to keep bad men in checlrand pre- 
8er\'e good citizens in the enjoyment of their rights. 

The mandarins are also held responsible if a large confla- 
gration takes place. If public property or buildings are de- 
stroyed by fire, they are liable to be degraded or punished in 
some way. Some twelve or thirteen years ago the Tem||j^ of 
Confucius, located near the south gate and inside the city,^look 
fire just after it had been left one morning by the oflicers whose 
basiness it was to burn incense there. The city officers wore 




332 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 

greatly alarmed lest the burning of the temple should be made 
known to the officials M Peking, in which case they expected 
to be punished. Tlie affair, however, was managed in such a 
manner that none of them were punished for permitting the 
conflagration of the temple. Good officers, it is expected, will 
keep every thing in order. When any event occurs which 
ought not to have occurred, they are, in theory^ held responsi- 
ble for permitting its occurrence, and treated as though they 
were guilty. 

In cities which contain yamuns of high mandarins, there is 
an office where manuscript daily gazettes are prepared, giving 
the public news relating to the important doings of the man- 
darins, and facts which concern them, such as appointments, 
advancement in rank, degradations, arrivals and departures of 
officers. This is prepared for the different high officials, the 
gentry, and subscribers generally. It corresponds somewhat 
to a da Hi/ gazette^ but is not printed and published, and 
hawked about the streets. This costs for city subscribers 
several shillings per month. It is uninteresting and valueless 
except to those who desire to keep posted up with affairs re- 
lating to mandarins. Besides this daily, there may be had 
manuscript copies of the Peking Gazette as often as there is 
an arrival of one from the capital. Generally one copy comes 
down from Peking to this city, from which copies are made 
for regular subscribers. 4t is always very much behind its 
date. There are no regular dailies or weeklies to which the 
people have access containing the news of the day. Almost 
all of the public information in regard to current events in 
other parts of the empire is conveyed by family letters, and by 
travelers who detail the news as they go from place to place. 
The means of transporting letters are very dilatory, unsafe, 
and expensive, so that members of families widely separated, 
or personal friends remote from each other, seldom correspond, 
giving the news, unless it relates to their mutual interests. 

When it is necessary that the people should be instructed 
in regard to important affairs, the mandarins cause proclama- 
tiona to be posted up more or less numerously, in the most 
frequented streets of the city and in the country villages, con- 
taining the information. These prgplamations are sometimes 
printed and sometimes in manuscript. Those concerned are 




OFFICE OFTEN OBTAINED BY PURCHASE. 888 

supposed to make themselves acquainted with its contents, 
and learn thereby what they are expected to do, and what 
they are expected not to do. These proclamations, together 
with handbills, and advertisements, and notices issued by store- 
keepers, etc., constitute the newspapers of China, and are found 
on the posts and walls of houses and shops. They take the 
place of dailies and weeklies. There is this difference between 
them and newspapers of the West — they cost the public read- 
ers nothing, but are furnished gratuitously, and posted up con- 
spicuously for the information of all whom they may concern. 

During the reigns of the last two or three emperors it has 
become more and more common, and, at the same time, more 
and more unpopular, for the mandarins to '^ exhort the people 
to subscribe money" for the use of the emperor in the admin- 
istration of the government. Orders are occasionally sent 
down from Peking stating the urgent need of more funds, and 
authorizing the officials to " exhort" the people to contribute 
to the imperial treasury. In obedience with the intimations 
from Peking, the mandarins undertake the task of endeavor- 
ing to "persuade" the rich men and the gentry under their 
jurisdiction to i^upply the wants of the emperor. The kind 
of arguments used are sometimes very forcible and powerful, 
as threats, arbitrary arrests, or personal violence, together 
with the promise of obtaining an office or a title, or the priv- 
ilege of wearing a button or feather denoting some degree of 
rank. It is put to their credit if they are able to report enor- 
mous sums paid into the provincial treasury as contributions 
from the people, and they expect to be rewarded in a suitable 
way for their patriotic efforts. 

Many who are now in office in the Middle Kingdom have 
obtained it principally by bribery or by purchase, or by the 
union of both bribery and purchase. The two are so intimate- 
ly related that perhaps the obtaining of office by the dex- 
terous and ample use of money, as if bi/ purchase/is invaria- 
bly connected with a greater or less degree of bribery of the 
officials who manage the procurement by purchase. A few 
years ago it was the common report that all of the high civil 
officials at this city had procured their places hy purchase. It 
requires practical tact of a high order to manage the affairs of 
goverDment with success. A talented business man is often 




884 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATEa 

dull at his books and in the use of his pencil, and, unless he has 
money to help him in climbing Cbe rounds of official employ- 
ment and emolument, he would generally remain at the foot 
of the ladder, looking upward, but unable to ascend. A poor 
scholai" without funds stands ordinarily but a sorry chance to 
become a mandarin of high rank, no matter how great his tal- 
ent for governing and for transacting business may be. 

It frequently occurs that graduates of the first or second lit- 
erary degree, by the payment of a sum of money into the im- 
perial treasury, may enter at once on the discharge of official 
duty and power. The sum paid by graduates of the low lit- 
erary degrees varies with their rank as scholars, and the rank 
of the office to which they aspire. The higher their rank as 
scholars, the less is the sum necessary to pay for the position 
they seek. Some men, who are rich but not learned, and who 
desire to play the mandarin without any literary rank already 
obtained, must pay comparatively very dear for an office — 
much dearer than a scholar would have to pay. Those who 
buy any particular office usually enter without delay upon its 
duties, having the precedence of those whose talents have 
earned them the station, or who have acquiiied it by gradual 
promotion. 

A man of talent, having arrived at the rank of doctor of 
laws by his own ability in the use of the pencil in literary 
compositions, need not fear that he will be long without offi- 
cial employment, if he desires it. Should he succeed in grad- 
uating at the fourth examination before the emperor, he is sure 
of entering the imperial college at Peking, or of receiving im- 
mediate official employment somewhere, without the necessity 
of using much money in bribing the officials there. Should he 
fail to graduate at the examination before the emperor, and 
yet have arrived at a certain rank on the list of graduates of 
the third degree, he is entitled to enter upon the duties of 
some magistracy without delay. The particular place in the 
empire is decid6d by lot, and the incumbent of the position 
which falls to the doctor of laws by lot must give way to him, 
or the higher mandarins there must provide for him immedi- 
ately on arriving with an office either temporary or perma- 
nent. The late incumbent must be supplied without long de- 
lay with another office. 




INFERIOR CLASS OP PUNISHMENTS. 885 

Legal Modes of Torture and of Punishment, 

Legal tortures and punishments are divided into the infe- 
rior and the superior. 

The inferior class includes — 

\, Wearing the Cangue, — This is a square collar made of 
boards, and is locked upon the neck. It is usually three or 
four feet across, having a hole in the centre for the neck of the 
culprit. It prevents the wearer from reaching his mouth with 
his fingers. It is locked on during the daytime, and generally 
taken off during the night. The crime for which one is pun- 
ished by wearing this wooden collar, and the time for which 
he is to wear it, are indicated in wnting upon the upper or 
the front side of it. He is placed in the daytime by the way- 
Bide, usually in the vicinity of the spot where he committed 
his offense. In the evening he is taken away from the public 
street by the constable of the neighborhood, who is responsi- 
ble for his safety. In the morning he is returned to his usual 
place of exposure in public, where he begs his living, unless 
his friends supply him with food. The legal time of wearing 
the cangue is from oae to three months. 

2. Beating, — This is of two kinds, according to the crime : 
one consists of beating the cheeks^ and the other of beating the 
paUeriora, When the cheeks are beaten, the culprit is usual- 
ly made to kneel down. The instrument used is about a foot 
long and two or three inches wide, and is made of leather. 
The lictor seizes the culprit by the hair of his head with one 
hand, while with the other he holds the instrument with which 
he beats the man the number of blows ordered by the manda- 
rin. The number of blows does not often exceed twenty or 
thirty. 

When the posteriors are beaten, the person is made to lie 
prostrate on the ground, face downward, and the parts to bo 
beaten are stripped of clothing. The instrument used is made 
of bamboo, and is of two kinds. One is about five feet long 
and two inches wide. With this only forty strokes can legal- 
ly be inflicted. The other is about three feet long and one 
inch wide. An indefinite number of strokes can be inflicted 
with it, at the direction of the magistrate. In military yamuns, 
a wooden — ^not bamboo— ferule or stick is used, w*ithout strip- 




886 



MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 



ping the offender. When a female is whipped with the bam- 
boo in civil offices or courts of justice, she is simply made to 
kneel, and then the strokes are inflicted upon her thighs or 
body, only her outer garments having been removed. 

Immense suffering is very frequently caused by the cmel 
use of the leathern scourge and of the bamboo sticks. The 
lawful number of blows is oftentimes largely exceeded. The 
severity of the beating, however, is not to be estimated by the 
number of blows inflicted, but by the amount of strength which 
the lictor puts forth. If bribed to beat lightly, he lays on ac- 
cordingly, though he may appear to strike very heavily. This 
method is oftentimes employed to produce or extort confes- 
sion, as well as to inflict punishment. 

3. Squeezing the Fingers, — This is a kind of torture nsed 
principally to extort confession. The man is usually made to 
kneel down, and is then tied by his cue to an upright post. 




BQUnZINO TUB rXMOUS. 



The fingers of each hand are then put between small rods (a 
rod coming between two fingers), which are so arranged that 
by pulling a cord attached to these rods the fingers are 
squeezed between them. The harder the cord is pulled or 




SUPERIOR CLASS OF FUNISHMEKTa 



887 




twisted, the tighter are the fingers squeezed, and the more 
painful does the torture become. The victim is finally willing 
to confess any thing which his accuser desires, so dreadful is 
the pain suffered. He sometimes stands while tortured. 

4. Squeezing the Ankles. — This is also a species of torture. 
The prisoner is made 
to kneel on the ground, 
and his ankles are 
placed in a frame con- 
sisting of three sticks 
or poles fastened near 
each other at one end. 
Each ankle comes be- 
tween two sticks. By 
pulling on the cords 
fastened to the other 
end of the sticks, the 
ankles are squeezed by 
the sticks as they are 
made to approach each 
other. 

5. Impriaonmcnt, — 
This kind of punishment, except in the case of those who are 
rich, or who have rich friends willing to bribe the jailers to 
treat them well, is awful and revolting beyond description. 
Insufficient and vile food is given them, and horrible tortures 
unknown to the laws arc inflicted. 

The superior class of punishments inclu«lo — 

1. Behec^ing. — ^Tho condemned man is curried forth to the 
execution ground in a kind of cage or box made of slats or 
bamboo. The crime for which he is to die is written upon a 
slip of paper, fastened to a piece of bamboo, which is then stuck 
into his hair. In his cage is a pail for holding his head, which 
is often suspended oii the city wall, or on a pole near the 
street, as a warning to the public. 

Beheading consists of two methods, differing in degree of 
ignominy. One is that of simply striking ofi* the head of the 
wretch at a blow, while kneeling, with his hands tied behind 
him, mod while bending down his liead. The other is that 
where the body of the victim is mangled, or cut in several 

VOL.1.— P 



SQCKEZtMU TUB AXKLU. 




888 



MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATES. 




CABETINU roUTU TO TUK i>LAOK Of EXBCLTION. 

places, previous to his head being struck off. Tliis is called 
" cutting into small pieces,^^ It is described as cutting into 
the eyebrows or over the eyes, the cheeks, the fleshy part of 
the arms, and the breasts, in such a way that the skin or the 
flesh in these different places will hang down. Then a stab 
is made with the sword by the executioner into the abdomen, 




ivn i*Jurottm iubcapitation. 




STRANGULATION AND BANISHMENT. 339 

which is followed by cutting off the head. Oftentimes the 
head is put into a kind of cage or pail, and hung up on the 
wall of the city, or on a pole in some public place, as a warn- 
ing to the people. The second kind of beheading referred to, 
that of ^^ cutting into small pieces^^ is regarded as the most 
ignominious of all capital punishments. Women who are con- 
demned to die as a punishment for committing adultery are 
oftentimes made to suffer death in this way. A parricide is 
also thus punished. 

2. Strangulation. — ^This is regarded as the least disgraceful 
of capital punishments, because the body is left unmutilated. 
The condemned is sometimes made to kneel on a frame, with 
his hands tied behind him, or stretched out and fastened to a 
cross-piece. His head is secured to a perpendicular post by 
bb cue, his face being tunied outward, or away from it. In 
the post there is sometimes a hole made about as high from 
the ground as the neck of the prisoner comes. Through this 
hole the two ends of a cord, which has been passed around his 
neck, are put. Tightening the ends of the rope by pulling or 
twisting them soon produces strangulation. Oftentimes, 
when the victim is almost dead, the cord is loosened, and ho 
is allowed to take breath, only to go through the pain of stran- 
gulation again. 

3. Banishment beyond the frontiers of the empire, — This is 
a form of punishing state criminals, convicted of peculiarly 
aggravated offenses, when they are not sentenced to death by 
beheading or strangulation. High officers of government, 
w*hen they fall under the displeasure of the emperor, or when 
they have political enemies sufficiently powerful to procure 
their ruin, are often condemned to be exiled to the vast terri- 
tories which are tributary to China lying outside of the north- 
western provinces. They are required to serve the emperor 
in the army. Oftentimes, by good behavior in their exile, 
they acquire such a stock of merit as to cause them to be re- 
called and reinstated in office. Banishment beyond the fron- 
tiers is a happy expedient of temporarily disposing of eminent 
men who have become too popular or too powerful, or for 
some reason obnoxious, until the time arrives when they may 
safely be again intrusted with power, or until their services 
become necessary in the administration of government, or un- 




340 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATEa 

til their political enemies have become unpopular and are 
overthrown. This kind of exile is almost always preceded or 
followed by the confiscation of a part or the whole of the 
victim's property. 

4. Banishment three thousand li from home, — ^This often- 
times is the punbhment accorded to murderers of the second 
or third degree, noted robbers, or culprits whose high crimes 
are regarded as having some very extenuating circumstances, 
and who may have money and influence enough to escape the 
sentence of death. They are sometimes supported by funds 
derived from the imperial coffers. They are obliged to reside 
in specified districts, and are under the superintendence of a 
local officer. Sometimes they are allowed to engage in busi- 
ness and support themselves. They are required to return to 
their former homes at the expiration of their term of exile, un- 
less they desire to remain where they have been living, and 
have influence and money sufficient to procure the consent of 
the government to remain. 

6. Banishment one thousand li for three yearSy or to an- 
other province, — ^This is the lightest form of exile. It is said 
that under some circumstances those who have been con- 
demned to this punishment can often escape its infliction by 
the payment of money as a fine. The crimes for which this 
punishment is usually allotted are gambling, fighting, thieving, 
and very mitigated cases of manslaughter. 

There are occasionally to be seen in the streets of this city 
exiles from other provinces, wearing the badges of their ban- 
ishment. These badges consist sometimes of an iron rod sev- 
eral feet long, or a stone weighing ten or fifteen pounds, at- 
tached to a chain locked around their necks. In such cases 
the stone or the iron rod is carried on the shoulder, steadied 
by the hand. When not in the public streets they unlock the 
chain, and lay aside the badge of their exile. According to 
law, it is affirmed, in the case of those who carry the stone on 
their shoulder, it ought to be made too heavy to be readily 
carried about, and the stone should bo placed in the daytime, 
with the culprit securely locked to it, in public, near some ya- 
mun, as a warning to the people passing by. 

There are occasions when the sentences of criminals through- 
out the empire are remitted one grade or more — e. ^., the sen- 




ILLEGAL TORTURES AND PUNISHMENTS. 841 

tence of banishment beyond the frontiers is changed to ban- 
ishment three thousand li, and banishment three thousand 
li to banishment one thousand H, or to another province, etc. 
The occasions referred to are such as the accession of a new 
emperor to the throne, the espousal of an empress, the birth 
of a first-bom son to the emperor, or the celebration of an ad- 
vanced imperial birthday. The emperor is not guided by any 
fixed rules when granting a full pardon, or a partial remission 
of these sentences to criminals. He sometimes remits punish- 
ments one degree ; at other times two or more degrees ; or he 
freely pardons certain classes of offenders, or he remits certain 
fines or arrears of taxes, according to caprice or the counsels 
which prevail in his cabinet, after professedly considering the 
circumstances which call for a display of his paternal love to- 
ward his distressed or erring subjects. 

Illegal Modes of Torture and of PtmishfiwU. 

Jailers and magistrates frequently resort to modes of pun- 
ishment and torture entirely unauthorized and unrecognized 
by law. Jailers unlawfully toHure the prisoner for the pur- 
pose of extorting money, and magistrates unlawfully torture 
him for the sake of eliciting confession of guilt or information 
abont his accomplices. The kinds of torture are not few, and 
the torment caused is often dreadfully excruciating. 

It should not be supposed that all of the methods mentioned 
are in general use in every part of the empire. They are re- 
sorted to, with various modifications, when jailers and magis- 
trates are pleased to use them. In different provinces, proba- 
bly, there are in use illegal methods of torture diflferent from 
those described. 

Ibstened on a bedstead— -1^ a prisoner does not promise 




rASTBNSD on A llBPtTBAD. 




842 



MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATSa 




rnsnc kind* or ■ntirmtm (Ukrn from 
Canton iiith-|M]»c>r |iiciurui<). 



money sufficient to satisfy the 
demands of his keepers, he is lia- 
ble to be put to bed on a wooden 
bedstead. He is placed on bis 
back, and his body made nearly 
immovable in something like the 
following manner: Boards with 
holes are passed up through 
openings in the bedstead. One 
is placed over each ankle, and one 
over each wrist, and another over 
the neck. They are then pressed 
down, more or less tightly, on 
these parts of the body, and fast- 
ened under the bedstead in such 
a way that he can not change his 
position. Besides all this, some- 
times a pole is fastened at right 
angles to a bar of wood placed 
across his ankles, the pole ex- 
tending to his chin and pressing 
against it, so that his head will 
be thrown backward or upward. 
In this position he is made to 
pass the night, unless the jailers 
relent or he comes to their terms. 
No one is willing to sleep the sec- 
ond night on such a bedstead, if 
he can arrange matters with his 
keepers. Rich men are often un- 
mercifully tortured by their jail- 
ers, in order to extort from them 
a large sum of money. 

Drame of the floxccry eychroit, 
— Some say this instrument is 
named after a certain bird, which, 
being tied to a frame by a short 
string, is continually hopping 
about, or flying away to the 
length of its string, and then re- 




TORTURE OF "MONKEY GRASPING A PEACH." 843 



taming. If such is the origin of the name, it indicates the in- 
tense agony which t)ic wretched man suffers, not allowing a 
moment's ease. It consists of an upright post, and two cross- 
pieces firmly fastened to it. The culprit is made to kneel on 
the lower of the cross-pieces, with his back to the post. His 
arms are outstretched, and fastened to the other cross-piece, 
which is placed several feet higher than the lower one. 
Across the calves of his legs is laid a stick several feet long. 
To the two ends of this stick are attached cords which pass 
through holes made in the ends of the cross-piece on which 
he kneels. By tightening these cords, the pressure on his 
legs becomes dreadful ; kneeling of itself would soon cause in- 
tolerable pain. To this is added the pain caused by pressing 
down the piece laid on the upper sides of his legs while he is 
in a kneeling posture. Some say that the wrists or arms are 
pressed at the same time and in a similar manner between the 
upper cross-piece and another stick placed on the upper side 
of the arms. This form of torturing a prisoner is sometimes 
employed by officers in order to extort confession. 

Monkey (grasping a peach. — ^The name of this torture is 
said to be derived ^^ 

from the fancied re- VsT " T*"^*^! 
fiemblance of the vie- ^v I ^^^ 

tim while enduring it 
to a monkey grasping 
something in his paw. 
It is used by manda- 
rins to compel a pris- 
oner to confess his 
guilt. It consists in 
suspending the man 
by one arm over a 
horizontal stick sev- 
eral feet from the 
ground, with the oth- 
er arm passed down under one or both legs, and the hands 
then securely tied together by the thumbs under or near the 
knees. In this way no part of the body is allowed to touch 
the floor, and the whole wei^rht comes under the arm-pit on 
one arm passed over the stick or pole. Simply to bind to- 




MONKinr ORABn.NO A PK\rn 

(culprit suspended by the anu.pit). 




344 



MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 



gcther tbo thumbs of a person whose hands are brought in 
contact under the knees would alone produce intolerable ag- 
ony in a short time, even if the victim were permitted to sit 
or take any position at pleasure. How dreadful, then, must 
be the torture when, besides the agony arising from such a 
cramped position of the body, the whole freight of the prison- 
er is sustained on a small piece of wood passing under one of 
his arms ! 

Standing in a cage, — ^The cage is made of slabs of wood, 
and high enough to contain the wretch sentenced to stand in 

it, his head protruding out of 
the top of the cage. He is 
obliged to stand on his tip- 
toes, and the orifice in the 
top is only large enough for 
his neck. In this way the 
man is made to suffer intense 
pain. To stand long on tip- 
toe is impossible. But the 
victim is obliged to stand 
partially on tiptoe, or be hung 
by the neck if ho draws up 
his feet in endeavors to rest 
himself. Only momentary re- 
lief is obtained by drawing up 
his legs, for that movement 
brings his whole weight on 
his neck. It is said that some 
time during the latter part of 
the reign of the emperor who 
died in 1850, a noted robber 
was compelled to stand in public in such a cage in the suburbs 
of this city until he died. 

Smoking the head in a tube. — A large tube of bamboo, 
with the natural joint or division in one end still remaining, is 
put upon the head of the culprit, and extends down a little be- 
low the chin. Sometimes a small tub or pail, turned bottom 
side upward on the head, is used, the object being to incase 
the head in something air-tight on the top and yet open at 
the bottom. Some incense is lighted, and placed so that the 




BTAMDIMO ON TIFTOE IM A CAOS. 




TORTURE OF "SUIRT MADE OF IRON WIRE.' 



845 



smoke Rhall ascend into the tnbe. As the smoke can not es- 
cape through the top, suffocation ensues unless the instrument 
is removed, or, to say the least, the victim endures indescriba- 
ble agony. This torture is not very frequently used. 

A shirt made of iron wire. — This kind of torture, it is af- 
firmed, was formerly used in this part of China, and is now 
occasionally resorted to at Peking. A shirt-like garment, 
made of very fine iron wire, with interstices something like 
those of a fishing-not, is put on the prisoner, the clothing from 
the upper part of his body Imving been removed. A cord is 
attached to it in such a way that when pulled the -shirt wiH 
press down closely on the body, and the skin and flesh will 
protrude more or less through the interstices. A knife-like 
instrument is then passed over the wire shirt on the outside, 
cutting or rasping off the protruding skin and flesh. This 
operation is repeated at the option of the dispenser of jus- 
tice! 

ITot-water snake, — A coil in form somewhat resembling a 
snake, and manufactured out of pewter, or some other piallea- 
ble metal, is arranged in such a way that an arm of the prison- 
er can be thrust into 
it. Each arm is put 
into such a coil, the 
head of the metal 
snake being higher 
than the other parts. 
Sometimes a similar 
tube is coiled around 
the body. A quanti- 
ty of boiling water is 
then poured into the 
mouths of the snakes, 
and as it passes down 
the tube bums the 
flesh, and causes in- 
tense pain. It is as- 
serted that this kind 
of torture is nowa- 
days seldom resorted 
to in the south of China, though it is believeil to be still occa- 

P2 




OUT- WATER SNAKr. 




846 MANDARINS AND THEIB 8UB0BDINATES. 

sionally used at tbe capitsU on state prisoDers. The Chinese 
place it in the list of illegal tortures. 

Whip of hooks, — ^A large number of very fine hooka are se- 
curely fastened to a handful of the fibres of hemp. The whole 
is then used as a whip with which Jo bgat the prisoner, in or- 
der to elicit a confession. When a blow is given with this 
whip, many of the hooks will stick to the body of the victim, 
and, unless a satisfactory confession is forthcoming, the whip 
is pulled or jerked back by main force, and another blow giv- 
en. The operation is repeated according to the dictation of 
the presiding officer. This kind of torture is represented to 
be more and more seldom employed in this part of the empire. 

Kheding on chains or bits of crockery, — ^The prisoner is 
made to kneel down on chains or bits of crockery, with the 
arms outstretched at right angles to the body. If the culprit 
lowers his hands, he is mercilessly whipped. At other times 
he is made, with his hands tied behind his back, to kneel down 
on these hard and uneven substances. The pain induced by 
kneeling on one's bare knees on a chain or any sharp-pointed 
mineral substance, even without any whipping, and without 
being obliged to hold out the arms, is soon absolutely intoler- 
able. Not unfrequcntly, in the case of stubborn criminals, are 
several hundred blows inflicted with a ratan thong while in 
the position above described — so the Chinese say. 

The above outline sketch of some of the ways of torture and 
of punishment used by jailers and mandarins, though declared 
to be unknown and unauthorized by the statutes, are perhaps 
sufficient to intimate the inhumanity and injustice which ac- 
cused, as well as convicted persons, are liable to experience at 
the hands of the administrators of the law. Xo wonder the 
people are exceedingly anxious to avoid falling into the clutch- 
es of the mandarins, especially if wealthy and of respectable 
cotmections. 

Common hut unlaxtful Practices, 

As illustrations of the customs which prevail here, touching 

the law and its violations, going to make up a correct view 

of Chinese society as it is, several practices will be described. 

The opening of gambling dens, or the assembling of men 

for the purpose of gambling, and the manufacture of gambling 




COMMON BUT UNLAWFUL PRACTICES. 347 

utensils, as cards, dice, doininoes,.etc., are forbidden by law, 
but are openly practiced. There are certain streets or alleys 
near the Big Bridge and the south gate of the city where al- 
most every house is a gambling shop. In a certain part of 
the suburbs is a neighbourhood where probably a majority of 
the population is engaged in the manufacture of gambling 
cards ; in another part is a public green, where oftentimes, day 
after day, may bo seen several mats, on which are strings of 
cash, with cards, dice, and other kinds of gambling utensils 
spread out on the ground, surrounded by a crowd of men 
openly engaged in the very act of violating the law. 

Lotteries are also prohibited, in consequence of their exceed- 
ingly pernicious influence on society. Mandarins are anxious 
to prevent them, and succeed only by the use of the most 
Btringent measures. A few years since, the head man of a 
certain lottery was arrested and beheaded by order of the 
viceroy, which decisive course struck terror into all who were 
engaged, or who were desirous of engaging in the business. 
The secret in regard to this consists in guessing which set, out 
of certain thirty-seven sets of names, is the successful one for 
a pailicular day. The set selected as the successful one for 
any specified day is, of course, known only to the managers of 
the lottery. Those who happen to guess it draw thirty cash 
for every one they stake. This great percentage of profit in- 
duces many to engage in this kind of lottery. 

The opening of gambling shops, and the overt act of gam- 
bling, together with the manufacture of gambling tools, are 
connived at by petty local officers, constables, and official em- 
ployes generally. The head men who engage in such viola- 
tions of the law bribe these local officers, and the spies and 
servants of the high mandarins, to silence in regard to their il- 
legal acts. The high officials, as some assert, are not aware, 
of the extent of these unlawful practices ; but it is much more 
probable that they are content to have the law violated, if the 
neighborhoods particularly concerned permit it, and no one- 
commences a prosecution of these violators of the law. With- 
out the aid of their underlings, who are already in the paid in- 
terest of these men, magistrates would make but poor prog- 
ress in ferreting out, arresting, and punishing the guilty. In 
fact, such is the condition of things here, that it would be next 




848 MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 

to impossible to prevent gambling or to suppress lotteries 
without the most extraordinary and determined personal ef- 
forts on the part of high officials. It is much more easy for 
them to let things go on in the accustomed way than to en- 
deavor to execute the laws in regar4 to this subject. 

The keeping of brothels is also prohibited by law, but toler- 
ated by custom in certain neighborhoods. It does not seem 
probable that the existence of these establishments in such 
numbers can be unknown to the high officers of government, 
but they take no active measures to arrest the proprietors or 
suppress the establishments. No Chinaman is willing to com- 
mence in earnest, and from correct motives, a regular prosecu- 
tion against them ; and the mandarins do not feel sufficiently 
interested to interfere and put them down, unless compelled, 
in the execution of the laws in consequence of legal prosecu- 
tion, to do so. The local constables and the policemen, and 
runners connected with official establishments, have the repu- 
tation of being bribed to bo silent, or represent matters in a fa- 
vorable light to their superiors, should any prosecution be at- 
tempted. The quarter of the suburbs where brothels princi- 
pally prevail has been burnt over twice during the past six or 
eight years. At the latest fire, while the buildings were being 
consumed and the inmates were being scattered in all direc- 
tions, some of the mandarins, who were present with their 
body-guard, as is the custom at fires, made no great efforts to 
put it down. One of them is reported to have said he was 
willing to have the place burnt over. A certain class of 
sharpers, who live principally by obtaining money by false pre- 
tenses — either connected with literary and influential families, 
or on intimate terms with mandarin employes — sometimes go 
to the proprietors of these haunts of vice and threaten them 
with prosecution before the magistrates. Tlie design and the 
effisct of such threats is the obtainment of money ; for, should 
they be properly prosecuted before the mandarins, the latter 
would be obliged to execute the laws, unless they could find 
some pretext to defer the matter or dismiss the complaint; 
and in all such cases the defendant would be required to spend 
comparatively a largo sum of money in presents or bribes to 
mandarin runners. It is much cheaper for the brothel-keepers 
to make a present to those blacklegs who threaten to prose- 




OTHER COMMON BUT UNLAWFUL PBACTICEa 849 

CQte them, than for them to delay to compromise the matter 
until it gets into the hands of the employ6s of the magistrate. 

Private or unlicensed pawn-shops are illegal. The large and 
legal pawn-shops have a license from the government. They 
arc allowed to charge certain rates of interest per month on 
the money advanced on the estimated value of the articles 
pawned. This is now said to be three per cent, per month on 
the smallest sums advanced, and two and four tenths per cent, 
on larger sums. The smallest sum charged as monthly inter- 
est on a loan is one and six tenths per cent. The licensed 
pawn-shops receive, when first licensed, a small sum from gov- 
ernment as a loan, on which they pay annual interest, profess- 
edly used as capital in the transaction of their business. Be- 
sides these there are unlicensed pawn-shops. Their proprie- 
tors charge an exorbitant rate of monthly interest on the sums 
lent on the security of the property they receive, being often 
nearly three times as high as that of the licensed pawn-shops. 
A part of their large gains is spent as bribes to gain the con- 
nivance of the mandarin runners and the local constables. 
These shops are willing to receive very inferior articles, while 
the lawful and licensed pawn-shops will have to do only with 
better and more valuable articles. The value at which articles 
are received by the former is estimated at comparatively much 
higher rates than would be allowed by the latter, should they 
be willing to receive them. These unlicensed and unlawful 
pawn-shops are opened only by widows, orphans, exiles, or by 
persons in their name and professedly for their benefit. Many 
of the employes of mandarins are deeply interested in the 
profits of these private jtawn-shops, under the names of other 
individuals. It is said that the mandarins are aware of the ex- 
istence of these unlawful establishments, but make no efforts 
to suppress them, if conducted by the classes of persons above 
mentioned as proprietors. Thieves, robbers, and rogues gen- 
erally are the greatest customers of these establishments. 

Clandestine manufacture or sale of salt is unlawful. Salt is 
a government monopoly. What is not made or what is not 
sold through certain agencies is liable to be confiscated to gov- 
ernment. The gains of the illicit trade in it, if undetected, are 
great, prompting to the invention of various methods of viola- 
ting the law, and of evading the vigilance of those who arc ap- 




350 MANDARINS AND THEIB SUBORDINATES. 

pointed to snperintcnd tho manufacture, the transportation, 
and the sale of this indispensable article. It has been found 
impossible to prevent the illegal sale of salt and its smuggling 
because of the venality of the subordinate officials. They are 
sometimes principals in the illegal acts, or interested accom- 
plices. When neither principals nor active accomplices, they 
are often ready to be bribed to wink at the violation of the 
salt regulations. The official agents not unfrequently steal 
salt from their superiors, and sell it as opportunity offers. It 
sometimes occurs that the very one who is sent to spy out and 
report illegal sales or smuggling of the article is the one most 
deeply interested in the surreptitious trade in it, and it is easy 
to conjecture the nature of his report to his employers. The 
sale of brine among the common people, in which fish or meat 
has been preserved, is also illegal. The explanation of this is 
to be found in the fact that brine contains salt, and after evap- 
oration the salt remains. If tho sale of brine should be tol- 
erated, it is feared that the revenue to the government derived 
from salt would soon be greatly diminished, as salt would be 
converted into brine to avoid the payment of customs dues, 
and brine could be easily made into salt if necessary. Brine, 
if containing a proper amount of something edible manifestly 
put in for preservation, is salable according to law. The ille- 
gal sale of brine is, however, connived at more or less by the 
agents of the farmers of the salt business. It may be retained 
by its owner for his own private use, but may not be publicly 
or privately sold for use in another place. 

Some men have extraordinary abilities at counterfeiting 
bank-bills, which they cultivate, n6t withstanding that such 
counterfeiting is, in theory at least, a capital crime, when 
proved against one. These men generally become known to 
the proprietors of banks, and, through them, to the employes 
of officers of government. Instead of having them arrcstetl 
and punished, so as to prevent them from practicing their cun- 
ning in the future, the principal bankers, it is alleged, make an 
agreement with them not to counterfeit their bills, and not to 
teach others to counterfeit them, paying a stipulated sum per 
month or per quarter, according as they can agree. Subordi- 
nate officials of the mandarins, according to established cus- 
tom, demand and receive money from these counterfeiters, if 




COUNTERFEITERS HIRED NOT TO COUNTERFEIT. 351 

they become known to them, as the price of not molesting 
them. It is said that in this way less counterfeiting of bank 
bills is really performed than would be performed if the coun- 
terfeiters were not hired not to counterfeit. If the mandarins 
should arrest a counterfeiter of bank bills, ho would usually 
only have to fee largely the petty officials, and undergo the 
punishment of being bambooed or of wearing the cangue in 
the streets a month or two, after which he would be again set 
at liberty and allowed to resume the practice of his art. The 
bankers protect themselves from being largely harmed by 
counterfeited bills by making it the interest of a head counter- 
feiter not to counterfeit their bills, and not to teach his art to 
others, and not to connive at counterfeiting when done by 
others, if known to him. A certain man who flourished here 
some fifteen or twenty years ago, is spoken of among the peo- 
ple as exceedingly successful in his efforts at counterfeiting 
bills. The imitations he made sometimes could not be distin- 
guished from the genuine, even by the bankers themselves. 
This man became notorious for his illegal but tolerated clever- 
ness, and received many presents from various rich bankers, 
who were desirous of propitiating his good-will and of secur- 
ing his active efforts in their favor by inducing him to dis- 
courage counterfeiting on the part of others. For several 
years he received regular stipends from the proprietors of 
banks. Ho was the recognized chief of counterfeiters. By 
engaging such a man not to counterfeit, and not to instruct or 
abet others in counterfeiting the bills of their banks, they were 
comparatively safe from extensive frauds, and they could have 
his aid in detecting and individualizing other clever imitators. 
If he still lives, he doubtless receives regular stipends from 
those who are most deeply interested in his not exercising his 
gifls. All this is in perfect accordance with the Chinese sys- 
tem of employing a rogue to catch a rogue, and of making an 
honorable mandarin out of a notorious chief of pirates. 

Counterfeiters of cash, and persons engaged in deteriorating 
silver, comprise a tolerably large class of men, who would be 
arrested and severely punished by mandarins if they could 
ascertain their rendezvous and reach it with faithful followers 
before the guilty have been warned of the attempt to take 
them. But policemen in the employment of government, and 




352 MANDARINS AND THEIR SUBORDINATBa 

the constables living in the neighborhood where the illegal 
work is secretly carried on, make it their interest to maintain 
silence on the subject when not personally called upon to fur- 
nish information or aid, and also to screen these men from de- 
tection and arrest, whenever possible, by giving them timely 
warning of the approach of a posse of officers, or by throwing 
the latter off the track. Holes are made in foreign dollars or 
lumps of silver, and quicksilver, lead, white copper, or brass, 
etc., is put into the centre, and the outer edge of the orifice is 
neatly filled in with pure silver ; or sometimes, in running in- 
gots of silver, the baser metal is put into the centre of the 
mould, and then the pure metal is poured into it. In regard 
to foreign dollars, the skill exhibited in removing a part of the 
middle of them — filling up the cavity with some cheaper yet 
heavy metal, and closing over the orifice — is so great, that de- 
tection of the fraud from the external appearance is often very 
difficult. Silver wristlets, silver ornaments for the hair, and 
silver earrings, arc very often served in a similar way. The 
common copper cash is. sometimes counterfeited, the counter- 
feit being smaller and thinner than the genuine, and made out 
of adulterated metal. All the above-mentioned methods of 
deteriorating the value of dollars, ornaments, and sycee, and 
of counterfeiting cash, and some other methods not enumera- 
ted, either require the use of fire in melting the material, or in 
beating or working it, so that it is, in fact, found impossible for 
any great length of time to prevent the neighbors from learn- 
ing what is being done. The local policemen, and finally some 
of the mandarin runners, come to know the illegal natare of 
the transactions. The neighbors, however, seldom or never 
interfere in what does not personally concern themselves, 
though known to be contrary to law, and practiced by one of 
their community. It is a common saying, that even a thief is 
never complained of or molested by his neighbors unless he 
should steal from them. As for the local petty officials who 
may become cognizant of the counterfeiting of cash, or of the 
adulteration of the precious metals, in their neighborhood, 
they are, generally speaking, easily bribed, not only not to do 
any thing to molest the law-breakers, but to screen them from 
any attempt on the part of the officers to bring them to jus- 
tice, if they can screen them with safety to themselves. 




WHAT THE STATE BELIGION INCLUDEa 853 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE STATE RELIGION. 

Enumeration of some of the Ohjects worshiped by Mandarins. What is meant 
by State Religion. — Burning Incenso bi-montlily. — Vernal and aatumnal 
Sacrifices. — Confucius, or God of War — Heaven and Earth. —Processions 
in honor of Spring and of miliUry Utensils. — Goddess of Sailors and 
•'Mother.*' — Expense defrayed by Government — £mperor*s Birthdays 
and Death celebrated. — Worship of the Flag. — Saving Eclipses of the 
Moon or Sun. — Seals of Office. — God of the Gate and the Fox.— This 
Worship not performed because proper. — No Christian can be a high Offi- 
cer. — Worship of Con/uciuSf illustrating the State lit lit/ion : Description of 
prcfectural Temple to Confucius at Fuhchau. — Its Cost. — Size. — Tablet 
to Confucius. — Autumnal Sacrifice in 1858 witnessed. — Preparatory Re- 
hearsal. — Method of preparing the Articles to bo oflcred. — Incident. — 
Method of arranging the Articles. — Place assigned by the Prefect. — Ar- 
rival of Mandarins and Musicians. — Manner of Worship and presenting 
Food to Confucius. — Musicians and Boys perform with their Instruments. 
— Burning of Silk. — Articles and Animals offered annually in China to 
Confucius. — Manner of national Mourning for the Death of II ten Fung, also 
illustrating the State Religion: Arrival of a Disi)atch with the Blue Seal from 
Peking. — Time fixed for official Mourning. — Shaving, l^larriages, and 
Theatricals forbidden fur one hundred Days from the Death of the Em- 
peror. — Sign-boards put in Mourning. — Many Marriages celebrated before 
forbidden. — Official Lamentations witnessed. — Mandarins in Mourning. 
— Description of Arrangements. — Ceremony of three Kneclings and nine 
Knockings performed.— The Mandarins pretend to Cry: 

JSnitmeration of some of the Objects tcorshiped by Mandarins. 
The Chinese usually speak of only three native religions — 
Confueianism, Buddhism, and Tauism. There is, however, 
another religion, using that term in a modified sense, which is 
properly and distinctively called the religion of the state, or 
the state religion, because it is intimately connected with the 
administration of the government according to the established 
rtffime. It includes the various superstitious and idolatrous 
acts which mandarins are obliged to perform in virtue of their 
being officers of government — whether demanded by the pub- 
lished laws and by the occasional rescripts of the emperor, or 




354 THE STATE BELIGION. 

by the established customs of the place where they are called 
to discharge their official duties. 

The high mandarins arc required to make sacrifices in the 
spring and autumn, and to burn incense. on the first and fif- 
teenth of every Chinese month, before certain gods or objects 
of worship. 

The most important and imposing of the vernal and autum- 
nal ceremonies are performed in honor of the " Literary and 
the Military Sages," viz., Confucius, and Kuanti, the Chinese 
god of war. These take place in the temples devoted to them. 
The principal officers are required to be present, each per- 
forming his respective part, as standing or kneeling, etc. 
There is much pomp and show on these occasions. A whole 
buffalo or ox, a whole goat, and a whole hog, and many dishes 
of meats, vegetables, and fruits, are presented, and the best 
kind of incense and large candles are burned. 

The high officers must also make a sacrifice or bum incense 
in honor of Heaven and Earth, and in honor of the mountains 
and the streams of the province, in the spring and autumn of 
every year, at an altar on Ulack Rock Hill in the city, and at 
an altar on Great Temple Hill in the suburbs. They are held 
responsible for the performance of an appointed ceremony 
twice per annum at the altar of the Wind, Clouds, Thunder, 
and Rain. About the time of planting or sowing seed in the 
spring, it is also made the duty of the high mandarins to offer 
a sacrifice in honor of the gods of the land and grain, in a 
place not far from the south gate of the city. 

The high officials, as the viceroy, the provincial governor, 
the Tartar general, etc., must themselves officiate in regard to 
the class of objects which have been referred to as requiring 
a vernal and an autumnal sacrifice and worship. It is not op- 
tional to do it by proxy, if they are in the city and in good 
health. The objects which the emperor himself at Peking 
annually or semi-annually worships, and unto which ho makes 
sacrifices, it is the imperative duty of his high officials in the 
provinces to worship and sacrifice unto in person for him, 
repremnting his majtsty himself, A failure to perform these 
oflicial and representative acts with due solemnity and in ac- 
cordance with the established rites would surely be visited 
with his displeasure, should it become known to him. 




SEMI-ANNUAL SACRIFICES BY MANDARINS. 866 

The temples dedicated to the literary and the military sages 
must be visited regularly early in the morning of the first and 
the fifteenth of each Chinese month by some high mandarin 
or his substitute, in order to bum incense and candles before 
their images or their tablets. The time spent in the perform- 
ance of worship is not long, but the worship must be punctual- 
ly performed. 

The prefect presides at an annual procession through the 
streets of the city, composed of mandarins lower in rank than 
himself and of the gentry, in honor of spring. In the suburbs, 
the marine inspector is chief of this annual procession. A mil- 
itary officer is chief in a procession in which military utensils 
are paraded through the streets of the city in the autumn. 
The vernal and the autumnal processions are accompanied 
with various superstitious or idolatrous practices. 

Besides the altars and temples which have been specified, 
there are a number of others where high officials are expected, 
in person or by proxy, to make a sacrifice twice per annum, 
or to bum incense twice per month, according to specific di- 
rections from Peking. Among them are certain temples be- 
longing to Ma Chu, the goddess of sailors, and to a goddess 
of children usually called "Mother," and a temple located near 
the centre of the city, often referred to as the temple of the 
" city teall and moat.^^ In that temple a divi^i^y who corre- 
sponds in rank in the other world with the provincial govern- 
or in this is worshiped. There is no whole ox oftered before 
this divinity, but a whole goat and a whole hog, with a large 
variety of fruits and vegetables, etc., are duly presented. 
There are also several temples where some local divinities are 
honored by command of tlie emperor — numerous " neighbor- 
hood worthies," " chaste and filial" widows and virgins, etc. 
These are seldom or never honored by the presence of high 
officials. Incense, candles, and meat or vegetable sacrifices 
are offi3red before them by persons deputed by the high offi- 
cers. 

The expense connected with these official sacrifices is paid 
out of the provincial treasury in the case of some ; in the case 
of others it is defrayed by the neighborhoods in which the 
temples are situated, or by funds belonging to the temples. 
The actual expense of most of these observances is quite small. 




856 



THE STATE REIilOION. 



Some of the temples have an annual stipend granted by the 
emperor for the purpose of meeting this expense ; others only 
receive a stipend at the time the divinities worshiped in them 
are admitted into the number of objects worshiped by offi- 
cials. 

On the recurrence of the birthday of the emperor, or in 
mourning on account of his death, the high and the low man- 
darins are required to " rejoice'* or to " lament" in the tem- 
ple devoted to him, or in some other place appointed, using 
the highest ceremony known in China, viz., the " three kneel- 
ings and the nine knockings." In some of the temples where 
semi-annual or semi-monthly ceremonies are performed by im- 
perial command, ceremonies betokening "joy" or "sorrow" 
on occasion of the recurrence of the birthday of the emperor 
or of his death are observed before the idols, just as though 
these things rejoiced or mourned. 
The viceroy, as generalissimo of the Chinese army, whenev- 
er he is about to start 
on a warlike expedi- 
tion, must worship his 
flag. Whenever he 
sends away with a de- 
tachment of soldiers 
any high military offi- 
cer as his deputy to 
fight the enemy, and, 
generally, whenever 
any high military offi- 
cer is about to proceccl 
into battle, the flag of 
his division or brigade 
must be worshiped. 
The worship is often 
performed on the pub- 
lic parade-ground in 
the suburbs near the 
south gate of the city. 
The viceroy sometimes 
chooses to sacriflce to 

rLAO-BSARKft, OB OOD OF TIIB FLAQ i ^ t • _^ 

(▼onhlped b7 mUltary nuuuUrliM and bj foldiezi). the flag OU hlS OWH 





MANNER OF WORSHIPING THE FLAG. 857 

private parade-ground connected with his yamun. The time 
selected is oflcn about daylight or a little later. Usually, how- 
ever, the day, hour, and minute are fixed by some fortune-tell- 
er. Oflentimes the high officials, both civil and military, con- 
nected with the government are present. It is necessary that 
all of the officers who are to accompany the expedition should 
not only witness the ceremony, but take a part in it. The 
same remark is true of the soldiers who are to be sent away 
or to engage in the fight. In the centre of the arena is placed 
a table having upon it two candles, one censer, and several 
cups of wine. The candles are lighted at the proper time. 
Some officer, kneeling down, holds the large flag by means of 
its staff near the table. The viceroy, or the officer who is to 
command the expedition, standing before the table and the 
flag, receives three sticks of lighted incense from a professor of 
ceremony, which ho reverently places in the censer arranged 
l)etween the candles. He now kneels on the ground, and bows 
his head down three times. Some of the wine taken from the 
table is handed to him while on his knees, which he pours out 
on the ground. Then a cup of wine is dashed upon the flag, 
the professor of ceremony crying out, " Unfurling the flug^ 
victon^ is obtained ; the cavalry advancing^ merit is perfect- 
ed,^^ The whole company of officers and soldiers, who had 
previously knelt down and bowed their heads in the prescribed 
manner, now simultaneously rise up with a shout, and com- 
mence their march at once for the scene of action or their ap- 
pointed rendezvous. 

On an eclipse of the sun or the moon, mandarins must en- 
gage in certain superstitious ceremonies to save the luminary 
eclipsed. 

Tlie mandarins, on arriving at their official residences from 
Peking, or from their previous homes — from the viceroy down 
to the district magistrate — (as some Chinese assert) are re- 
quired by custom,^ not by law, to perform three superstitious 
ceremonies. They first worship their seals of office; they then 
offer sacrifice to the god of the gate or door ; finally^ they wor- 
ship the fox. After these acts, they may proceed to perform 
official business with the hope of success. 

There is, in connection with some of the principal civil ya- 
inuns, a small two-storied building, devoted to the worship of 




358 THE STATE RELIGION. 

his majesty, Master Reynard. There is no image or picture 
of a fox to be worshiped, but simply an imaginary fox some- 
wdere. Incense candle^ and wine are placed upon a table in 
the room of the second story of this building, and before this 
table the mandarin kneels down and bows his head in the cus- 
tomary manner, as an act of reverence to Reynard, the keeper 
of his seals of office. This sacrifice, it is affirmed, is never per- 
formed by deputy. The Chinese believe the official seal of the 
mandarin, after he has ariived at his yamun, to be in the keep- 
ing of the fox. They assert, with great earnestness and ap- 
parent sincerity, that if the mandarin did not worship the fox 
on his arrival at his residence, his seal of office would shortly 
disappear in some inexplicable way, or some singular and 
strange calamity would certainly befall him or his yamon. 

Probably this worshiping of th5 fox, as the keeper of the 
seals of office, is nothing more than a custom — possibly a mere- 
ly local custom, and not required or recognized by the laws of 
the empire. It has, however, all the power of law in this 
place — a practice observed by new incumbents of high office 
as reverently as though it were one of the most important and 
momentous of duties. Any disrespect or slight of the fox, on 
the part of the mandarin, is said to be always sure to be re- 
membered and avenged by his invisible majesty in such a man- 
ner as to produce repentance and the exhibition of proper re- 
spect and fear. 

It is unnecessary to dwell at greater length on the personal 
complicity of mandarins with the worship of deified men, or 
heavenly objects, or imaginary divinities, in consequence of 
their official position, either by special command of the empe- 
ror, or the requirements of established law, or local custom. 
Enough has been said to show that native officials in the serv- 
ice of the emperor must perform regularly many very super- 
stitious and very idolatrous rites and ceremonies, in virtue of 
their being in the employment of the stato.^ 

It ought not to be supposed that mandarins engage in these 
official superstitious acts because they believe them to be prop- 
er in themselves. Many are intelligent enough to know that 
some of them are quite absurd and useless. Most or all of the 
officials may indeed sympathize heartily in the worship paid to 
Confucius ; but, in regard to many of the other objects which 




CHRISTIANS CAN NOT BE HIGH MANDARINS. 859 

thoy are required to worship officially, they would not think 
of reverencing them in the manner described if they were left 
to themselves, and if they would not be deprived of their offi- 
cial positions in case they declined or omitted to conform with 
the established practices. The Chinese people in largo num- 
bers, who arc much less intelligent than arc the mandarins, in 
theory admit the folly and the usclessness of many of these 
practices, but assert that the customs and the laws of their 
country must be obeyed and observed. 

It is not difficult to perceive that under existing regulations 
no sincere Protestant native Christian can be an officer of 
government in China. He would bo required, on occasions 
not a few, to take a part in ceremonies and rites which are in 
direct variance with the doctrines contained and the duties 
enjoined in the sacred Scriptures, and which he could not dis- 
charge in person or sanction by proxy, even if that were per- 
mitted. The emperor, by his requirements, really excludes 
honest and conscientious natives, who are determined to do 
only what is right, from taking office and assisting in the ad- 
ministration of the government. He can employ only those 
who are willing to do his bidding, whether reasonable and 
right, or whether exceedingly unreasonable and monstrously 
wrong. No wonder that the officials in China are venal, hyp- 
ocritical, deceitful, and time-serving. 

77*6 tcorship of ConfuciuSy illustrathuj the State HeUgion. 

The manner in which the worship of Confucius is conducted 
will show the high estimate in which the sage is held, and will 
illustrate by example what is meant }gf the term ^^ State Relig- 

There are three temples dedicated to the Chinese sage at 
this place. The largest was built ten years ago, and belongs 
to the prefecture. The two smaller ones belong to the two 
districts which join or meet in the city. 

The old temple, on the site of the present prcfectural temple 
to Confucius, was destroyed at daybreak one morning in the 
fall of 1851 by a fire, which originated in the temple at the 
close of the usual autumnal sacrifice to Confucius. In two 
months a new temple, on the same site, was commenced, built 
by Rubscription of funds from the mandarins, gentry, and litor- 




360 



THE STATE RELIGION. 



ati of the city and vicinity. The needed amount was easily 
raised. It was considered a work of merit to aid in rebuilding 
the temple of the sage of China. In the smnmer of 1854 the 
building was finished, at the cost of 74,000,000 of copper cash, 
a sum at that time equal to about $53,000. The mason's bill 
amounted to a little less than two tenths of the whole cost; 
the carpenter's and the painter's bills to more than six tenths ; 
and the stone-cutter's bill to about two tenths. The same 
amount and kind of labor and material would probably have 
cost in England or America several times the sum reported as 
the entire cost of the new temple. The well-cut pillars or posts 
of solid granite, of which there are several scores of vanoos 
heights and diameters, some of which are very tall and large, 
would alone have cost a very large sum at the West. This 
temple well repays the visit of a *' stranger from afar," who 
has never visited any Chinese temple but those devoted to the 
worship of idols. The templeinclosure is about three hund- 
red and forty feet long by about one hundred and five feet 
wide, and consists principally of three parts. One is a large 
hall or room about seventy-five feet deep, in which the tablet 

to Confucius is erected, and the 
sacrifices and worship are per- 
formed. This tablet is aboat 
one foot wide and six feet high, 
painted red and partially gilded. 
Its inscription, m large gilded 
characters, denotes that it is 
erected to "77ie Moat Holy An- 
ciait Teacher Confucius.'^ The 
room also contains sixteen small- 
er tablets of Chinese worthies 
and famous scholars, among 
which, in the highest place of 
honor, stands that of the sub- 
sage Mencius. Near it is the 
tablet of the great commentator 
of the Chinese classics, Chufutie. 
Another part is a largo court, to 
the south of the main hall, and 
is about one hundred and fifty* 




TRADITIO.NAL LIKJBMKNB OW OO.Nri'OIOa. 




DESCRIPTION OF TEMPLE TO CONFUCIUS. 



861 




TtAOITIOMAL UKKMEtW OK MlMCICft. 



TEAUITIUNAL UK£>LiMt OF OMUrUT 



four feet long. On the cast and the west sides are long build- 
ings, in which are contained about one hundred and thirty 
four tablets of the pupils of Confucius and of distinguished 
scholars; sixty-seven tablets are deposited in each building, 
arranged in eleven niches or apartments. In each niche is a 
long table or a stationary altar, made of stone, on which in- 
cense and candles, etc., are to be placed when the sage is wor- 
shiped in the spring and autumn. The open space between 
these long rooms is neatly paved with granite, and is kept in 
good repair. In this court are two gaudy pavilions, six or 
eight sided, each containing a large stone tablet covered with 
Chinese characters. Still farther to the south is another court, 
about one hundred and ten feet deep. On its east and west 
sides are several small rooms for the reception of officers and 
for tablets of very distinguished literary men. Some of the 
tablets represent men who were natives of this province. 
Within a few years, the tablet of a very faithffll courtier of an 
emperor who flourished in the Sung dynasty — a native of this 
place — has been admitted among the tablets. The place which 
it formerly occupied in a temple outside of the west gate is 
now occupied by a tablet or an image of Commissioner Lin, 
of opium-war notoriety, who died in the summer of 1850. In 
Vou I.— Q 




362 THE STATE RELIGION. 

one of these rooms are five small images, the origin and oesign 
of which have not been ascertained, the keepers of the temple 
always declining to communicate information about them on 
the plea of ignorance. These images offer a striking contrast 
to the tablets in the other parts of the temple, and to the 
large and numerous images to be found in almost all Chinese 
temples. Some have thought them to be local deities, which 
for some reason have obtained a place in the Confucian tem- 
ple. In the old temple to Confucius, an image made of clay, 
brought from Shantung, his native province, instead of a tab- 
let, was worshiped. 

The established times for offering sacrifices to Confucius 
usually fall in the second and the eighth Chinese months. 
The autumnal sacrifice for 1858 came on the 11th of Septem- 
ber. The vernal sacrifice for 1859 fell on the 10th of March. 
These sacrifices are performed about four or five o'clock in the 
morning, by torch and candle light. 

It was my good fortune, in company with two other mis- 
sionaries, to be present at the autumnal sacrifice to Confucius 
which occurred on the 11th of September, 1858, in the prefect- 
ural temple. 

On the afternoon of the 10th, two of us went into the city 
to witness the preparatory rehearsal, which was attended in a 
large temple adjoining that of Confucius. A crowd of noisy 
youngsters, and of dignified and self-complacent literati, had 
collected there, together with some of the subordmate ofiicials 
of the city, to look on while the business of rehearsing some 
of the parts of the ceremony, to come off in grand style on the 
following morning, was being performed by those who were 
appointed to help in the ceremony. None of the high officials 
who were to take a principal part in the worship were pres- 
ent. They received private instructions from their professor 
of rites and ceremonies in regard to what they were to do. 
At the close of the rehearsal we called at the Confucian tem- 
ple. 

We found a crowd of idlers loitering about, w*hile some men 
and boys were busy at work preparing for the approaching 
sacrifice. We noticed a large number of vessels, made after 
strange and unique patterns (said to be like those used in an- 
cient tiroes), of various sizes and shapes, and capable of hold- 




TRYING TO DECEIVE CONFUCIUS JUSTIFIED. 868 

ing from a quart to several quarts apiece. They were de- 
signed to be tilled with rice, salt, fruits, uncooked vegetables, 
etc., and to be put upon the stationary stone altars which 
stood in front of the tablets of the sage and the worthies. 
We counted over one hundred and eighty vessels already pre- 
pared, and the attendants were preparing others. We ob- 
served that instead of honestly filling up the vessels from the 
bottom, they sometimes pasted a paper around the sides, just 
below the brim of the vessels, designed to hold small articles, 
leaving the space in the vessels underneath the paper quite 
empty. On this paper they carefully laid rice, salt, and other 
articles comparatively dear. One kind was put on one vessel 
— not several articles mixed together ; there was quite a largo 
number of vessels having the same kind of article upon them. 

On some one of our party asking whether they expected to 
deceive Confucius, and how they dared to try to deceive him 
by offering to him vessels con tarn ing only a very small quanti- 
ty of the articles, while the bottom was empty, a young man 
pertly answered, " VeSy it will answer to deceive Confucius^ but 
it will not ansxcer to deceive Jesus.^^ True, thought we ; Jesus 
requires His followers to be sincere, and to put away all decep- 
tion. How different from the theory and the practice of those 
who worship Confucius I The explanation of the conduct of 
these persons undoubtedly is, that having agreed to prepare 
for the sacrifice a certain number of vessels filled with certain 
kinds of articles, by the joby they planned to make as much 
money as possible — pasting paper near the top of some of the 
vessels, and then using only as much of some fine articles as 
would fill the vessel from the paper to its top, leaving the 
space below unfilled. The vessels containing most of the 
coarser and cheaper vegetables were filled up from the bottom. 

While two of us were making our observations on the tem- 
ple and the preparations for the approaching sacrifice, the oth- 
er, standing with his back toward the tablet to Confucius, ad- 
dressed the crowd (which gathered about him as he began to 
speak in the vernacular of the place) on the folly and the sin 
of worshiping deceased men, and the duty of worshiping and 
serving the only true and living God — perhaps the first Gospel 
discourse ever delivered in a temple dedicated to the worship 
of the Chinese sage. 




864 THE STATE REMQION. 

The next morning, about four o'clock, we repaired to iho 
temple to witness the sacrificial worship rendered to Confu- 
cius by the high mandarins. The premises were lighted up 
with fires built on elevated iron racks and by torches. A 
large number of idle spectators of the lower class and of liter- 
ary men had already gathered together, though the high offi- 
cials had not arrived. We improved the opportunity to no- 
tice the arrangement of the articles to be offered as sacrifice. 

On a large stone altar, which stood directly in front of the 
tablet of Confucius, were placed two large tall candles, and four 
shorter and smaller ones, already lighted, and a quantity of 
burning incense, a large piece of cooked pork, a piece of ven- 
ison, and quite a variety of other kinds of food. A few feet 
in front of this stone altar were one large and two small tables. 
On the large table, which was placed between the other two, 
was the carcass of a yearling bullock. On one of the small 
tables was the carcass of a small hog, and on the other that 
of a very poor goat. The hair of these animals had been care- 
fully reraovccl, and the bodies, uncooked, were placed in a 
kneeling position, with their heads toward the tablet of Con- 
fucius, as though they were devoutly contemplating the vir- 
tues of the sage. On the large table there were also several 
dishes of food, two large and two small candles, and a quan- 
tity of incense already ignited. Besides the altar before the 
tablet of Confucius, there were four other similar but smaller 
altars. Two of these were placed before the eight tablets rep- 
resenting eight worthies on one side of the room, and two 
placed before other eight tablets on the opposite side of the 
room. In front of each of these altars were a pig and a goat, 
arranged on two tables, but no bullock. On these altars were 
several plates of food, with candles and incense. The various 
vessels seen on the day previous, containing fruits, grains, veg- 
etables, etc., were partly arranged on the altars in the main 
building, but the most of them were distributed about on the 
altars before the tablets in the two long rows of rooms on the 
sides of the large court in front of the main building. Before 
the large altar in front of the Confucian tablet, behind the bul- 
lock, and at several other places in the main hall, pieces of mat- 
ting were spread on the pavement at the spots where the high 
officials were to kneel. 




WORSHIPERS OF CONFUCIUS TAKE THEIR PLACES. 865 

While we were awaiting the arrival of the high mandarins, 
one of the district magistrates came to us, attended by an in- 
terpreter, and very courteously said that ho had been sent by 
the prefect to assign us a place, so that there should be no con- 
fusion daring the service. Accordingly, a very eligible posi- 
. tion was assigned to us, just outside one of the large doors of 
the main hall, enabling us to observe to a great extent what 
was going on within and without. We could not have select- 
ed a better position. 

Soon after, the beating of an immense drum suspended near 
the most eastern entrance to the main building, and the sound 
of musical instruments at a distance, betokened the approach 
of the expected great ones. A herald proclaimed their arri- 
val, and the flare of a multitude of torches and lanterns con- 
firmed the fact. These officers and their attendants halted at 
the proper places in the large court, while a company of twelve 
or fifteen players on musical instruments, together with some 
twenty-four boys, attended by two or three persons who di- 
rected their movements, marched up an inclined plane leading 
to a level arena in front of the main hall. The musicians en- 
tered the hall and disposed themselves in several parties. One 
company stood near the left, and another near the right end 
of the altar, in front of the Confucian tablet. The boys, with 
their dircctoi*s, stopped on the open arena in front of the hall, 
and divided themselves into two companies, arranging them- 
selves along the opposite sides of the large central doors. 
These urchins were clad in an embroidered tunic, much the 
worse looking for service, and they wore on their heads the red 
official cap used by Chinese on grand occasions. They were 
provided with instruments about two feet long, consisting of 
two parts. One of these parts was hollow. The other was 
solid, and passed partially through the hollow one. A nail 
or spike was driven into the upper end of the solid sticks, and, 
according to the regulations of the ceremony, there ought to 
have been a feather of the pheasant stuck on this iron point. 
But on this occasion the feather was wanting, if our observa- 
tion was correct Perhaps only very small feathers were used, 
which could not be seen in the distance. 

When every thing was ready, at signals given by the drum, 
some five or six officers, attired in very rich dresses and caps. 




366 THE STAT£ RELIGION. 

were seen slowly and solemnly ascending the stone steps on 
the east and west sides of the arena in front of the main hall, 
one following another at a short interval. Each mandarin 
was preceded by one or two ^^ professors of ceremony ^'^ The 
viceroy was not present on this occasion, being absent from 
the city on a rebel-quelling expedition in the western part of 
the province. The highest fanctionaries who took part in the 
sacrificial worship were the provincial governor, treasurer, 
criminal judge, the two commissioners of the salt and of the 
provision department. The Tartar general, and other Tartar 
and military officers, and the prefect, and other subordinate 
civil officei's, not being allowed to participate pei*sonally in the 
main hall, stood below in the court in front, ready to bow 
down at the proper time, which they doubtless did. Our po- 
sition did not admit of our seeing them perform. 

The officers, having ascended to the elevated arena with 
great solemnity, entered the hall by the doors on the right and 
the left of the centre, and proceeded to the places appointed 
for kneeling in front of the altars and the tables covered with 
offerings, all under the escort of their professors of ceremony. 
Here they slowly knelt down, and bowed the head toward the 
pavement three times, holding with both hands some sticks 
of burning incense, which, after the bowing was completed, 
they delivered back to their attendants from whom they had 
been received. The attendants handed to their officers, still 
kneeling, a vessel taken from the altar or the table in front of 
which they were, which, having received very carefully with 
both hands, they presented with a very reverential air toward 
the tablet in front, whether of Confucius or of some of the 
worthies, as though requesting them to partake of the con- 
tents. They then returned the dish to the attendants, who re- 
placed it upon the table or altar whence it had been taken. 
Sometimes the same ceremony was repeated with other arti- 
cles of food. Some or all of the officers passed from one altar 
to another, performing similar ceremonies. 

The musicians all this while were playing on their instru- 
ments, and chanting the words of an adulatory ode to Confu- 
cius. The big drum gave forth its sonorous peals occasional- 
ly, and the urchins outside of the ball were performing certain 
evolutions with their sticks, accompanied with kneelings and 




MANNKR or WORSHIPING CONFUCIUS— CONTINUED. 367 

bowings. These msnoeavres, in the estimation of the Chinese, 
indicated great reverenoe and majesty, but, in the humble opin- 
ion of the foreign observers, were eminently ridiculous. The 
manipulations of the two sticks seemed to consist principally 
in moving one up through the other as far as its handle would 
allow, the movements being slow and deliberate, designed to 
be in accord with the music. 

Soon the high officials, piloted by their professors of cere- 
mony, walked slowly out of the hall and descended into the 
coart, taking the same route by which they ascended. Short- 
ly afterward they and their cicerones came up again, went 
Uirongh with similar performances, and retired. The same 
routine was repeated for the third time, with slight devia- 
tions. At a certain period of the performances, while the of- 
ficers were below in the court, a professor of ceremony enter- 
ed the hall, and, proceeding to a particular spot where was 
placed a small stand by itself, reverently knelt down and chant- 
ed, in a shrill and most doleful tone of voice, a sort of sacri- 
ficial ode to Confucius. 

Shortly after the third and final descent of the worshiping 
officers into the court, a company of men walked out of the 
hall through the large central door, and passed directly down 
the inclined plane into the open area below, each holding with 
both hands a roll of coarse white silk above his head. These 
rolls of silk were burned on the pavement of the court as a 
special offering to the Chinese sage. 

A few moments more, and the ceremonies were brought to 
a conclusion by the retiring of the chief and subordinate man- 
darins in their sedans, a fact indicated most uuraislakably by 
a tumultuous rush of idle men and boys toward the torches 
and fires, which nntil this time had been kept burning bright- 
ly, each seizing what he could of the ignited brands. Confu- 
sion prevailed at once, and Isisted until the multitude had dis- 
persed. In a very short time comparative darkness and si- 
lence reigned throughout the precincts of the temple where 
there had been so much pomp and parade. 

Only those who had a public and official part to perform 
seemed solemn and reverential, while many of the spectators 
laughed, talked, and jested, apparently enjoying the perform- 
ance in mnoh the same manner as circus goers enjoy a circus. 




368 THE STATE RELIGION. 

or urchins at the West enjoy a show of rare and strange ani- 
mals. The lictors or subordinates of the officers several times 
checked the idlers who happened to be near us, lest their mirth 
should attract the attention of their superiors. 

It is said that, according to the established regulations, the 
carcasses of the animals used in sacrifice on the occasion of the 
vernal and the autumnal worship of Confucius are subsequent- 
ly cut up and divided among the principal officials of the city. 
Some one has estimated that the number of temples dedicated 
to the Chinese sage, in all parts of the empire, is 1560, and that 
21 fiOO pieces of silk, and 62,606 pigs, rabbits^ sheepy and deer^ 
not to specify the quantity of fruits, vegetables, etc., are annu- 
ally presented upon their altars — ^an estimate which seems not 
to include the number of bullocks slaughtered and offered as 
oblations in his honor. 

Manner of national Mourning for the Death of the Emperor 
IRen Fimg^ also illustrating the State Hdigion. 

The Chinese are all required to mourn for the death of the 
emperoi-, tlie empress, and the widow of an emperor, in cer- 
tain established ways, according to their rank and position in 
life. I propose to describe the national mourning, as it was 
observed at this place in the fall of 1861, on the occasion of 
the death of I lien Fung. It will be remembered that he died 
at Yehol, in TartJiry, on the 22d of August, 1861, whither ho 
had fled in October of the previous year, not long antecedent 
to the destruction of his summer palace by the allied English 
and French troops. 

The courier, bringing an official dispatch from Peking, with 
a blue seal on it, announcmg his death, arrived here thirty-four 
days after it occurred. The news of his decease had been 
made known to the public several days earlier, having arrived 
by steamer from Shanghai, but the mandarins could not rec- 
ognize the fact until they had received official intelligence in 
the established manner. The viceroy immediately issued a 
proclamation, announcing the fact and date of the emperor's 
death, and commanding all the civil and military officers, the 
gentry, and the people to put on mourning, commencing from 
that day. The mandarins accordingly had the large and hid- 
eous figures on the doors of their yamuns painted black, and 




MANDARINS IN MOURNING FOR THE EMPEROR. 869 




CIIIME8K GKNTLKMAM, OB OMK Or TUK OEXTRT. 

the neat red inscriptions on their door-posts and the posts of 
their yamuns covered over with reddish bhie paper. They 
removed their buttons of rank from their caps, began to nse 
sedan-chairs covered with plain black cotton cloth, and wore 
plain black clothes, with a white long coat or tunic on the out- 
tide, which extended down to their ankles, and which was fast- 
ened around their waist with a girdle or belt of white cotton 
eloth. 

Q2 




870 THE STATE RELIGION. 

The imperial rescript, giving specific directions in regard to 
the public mourning, after being waited for quite a number of 
days, not arriving, the high mandarins decided not to delay 
longer for it, but to mourn and weep according to the method 
practiced in 1850 on the death of the preceding emperor. Ac- 
cordingly, on the 1 7th of October, the viceroy issued a procla- 
mation, ordering the civil and military officers, and the gentry 
and others who ought to take a part in the public demonstra- 
tion, to meet twice per day, on the eighteenth, nineteenth, and 
twentieth days of the said month, in a certain temple adjoin- 
ing the prefectural temple to Confucius, and there to ^^ lift up 
their lamentations.'' The times specified were seven o'clock 
A.M. and three o'clock P.M. 

On the same day he issued another proclamation, notifying 
the common people that thereafter^ reckoning for one hundred 
days from the day of the death of the emperor, they should 
not shave their pates as usual^ nor should there be any mar- 
riages nor any festivities whatever. On the following day, 
the governor of the province issued a proclamation to the 
same general effect, rehearsed the news previously made 
known by other proclamations, and reiterated the commands 
of the viceroy for the officials and the gentry to meet together 
and " weep" at the temple and on the days above specified. 
On the following morning, the 19th of October, appeared proc- 
lamations from the two district magistrates of the city, order- 
ing the people to put the usual badges of national mourning 
on their sign-boards, if engaged in trade, and on the common 
red inscriptions found very numerously on the posts of their 
houses. 

The sign-boards of the stores, hongs, banks, etc., which had 
the names of the firms painted thereon in red characters or 
gilded, were put in mourning, in obedience to the proclama- 
tions of the district magistrates. Those having black letter- 
ing, according to my observation, remained as before. But 
of the other sign-boards, some had yellow, others had green, 
others had blue or white paper attached to them in some way. 
Sometimes the sides of the sign-boards were first covered over 
with green paper, and then the name of the firm was written 
on the paper with black ink. At other times, the paper at- 
tached to the sign had two characters written on it in black 




BADGES OF NATIONAL MOURNING. 871 

ink, which indicated that the ^'nation was in mourning." 
Sometimes several such pieces of paper, of a square or oblong 
shape, were pasted on the same sign ; at other times only one, 
according to the fancy of the proprietor, or perhaps that of 
his clerks. Red paper was not used, red being the symbol of 

joy- 
According to law, on the death of an emperor, barbers, play- 
actors, and players on musical instruments, are deprived of 
their usual methods of obtaining a living for the space of one 
hundred days. Barbers may not shave the crowns of their 
customers, though they are allowed to comb and braid their 
cues. In fact, however, some persons whose business does not 
call them into the public street, if not connected with the fam- 
ilies of the gentry or of acting mandarins, do have their heads 
Rhaven more or less during the interdicted season, but it is at 
the risk of arrest and punishment. The proclamation ordering 
the people not to shave their heads did not appear here till 
more than fifty days had elapsed after the emperor's death oc- 
curred, and some twenty or more after the news had arrived 
per steamer ; during all this time they continued to shave as 
usual. 

Before official news of the emperor's decease arrived, and 
after reliable intelligence of that event had reached this port, 
a large number of marriages were celebrated among the peo- 
ple. This was owing, in many cases, to the law, that for one 
hundred days subsequent to that event, marriage processions 
through the streets in the customary manner — that is, with 
the bride seated in a red bridal chair, and preceded by a band 
of music — would not be allowed. Some marriages that, ac- 
cording to previous expectations, would have been celebrated 
during the latter part of the hundred days, were hastened so 
as to bo over with before the prohibitory proclamation should 
make its appearance. If the parties are willing to. have the 
bride carried through the streets in a plain black sedan, with 
no show of rejoicing and without any band of musical per- 
formers preceding it, marriages during the period of national 
mourning could be celebrated, and no notice of them would 
ordinarily be taken by the mandarins. But few respectable 
families are willing to have a matriage connected with them 
celebrated in this private manner. 




372 THE STATE RELIGION. 

On the afternoon of the 19th of October, in company with 
several friends, I went to see the mandarips, gentry, and ex- 
pectants of office of certain ranks engage in the ^^ lamenta- 
tions" on account of the decease of Hien Fung. It was an oc- 
casion which none of us will soon forget. We were rather 
early, and found a rabble of men and boys assembled aroond 
the outer door of the temple where the lamentations were to 
take place, and desirous of slipping into the premises along 
with the attendants and retainers of the persons who were en- 
titled to enter. We were at once allowed to enter, but sev- 
eral Chinese friends who tried to follow us were summarily 
pulled back by the guard stationed at the gate. The company 
inside was quite select, the majority being attendants and se- 
dan-bearers of their masters, who constituted the minority. 
The latter were easily recognized by their being all dressed in 
white cotton tunics, reaching down to their ankles, and having 
about their waists a sash of white cotton cloth. They all had 
on black satin or black cotton boots, with very thick white 
soles. The caps were all plain and conical, coming to a point 
a few inches above the crowns of their heads, and without the 
usual button of rank on the apex. Their number was in- 
creased by new arrivals every few minutes, until the viceroy 
himself, in a plain black cloth sedan, carried by eight bearers, 
arrived, when all who were to take a part in the lamentations 
proceeded to their appointed positions. 

Two coarse unpainted oblong tables had been arranged 
near the>north end of the temple, one a little longer and a httle 
higher than the other, being about five feet long and four or 
five feet high. The higher was placed behind the other. On 
its centre was a large censer, containing burning cake-incense, 
the fumes of which were not altogether pleasant. On the east 
and west sides of the censer were tall vases, containing fresh 
white flowers, commonly known as the China-asters. Near 
the ends of this table were two, candlesticks, made of pewter, 
some three or four feet high, each having a large yellow can- 
dle in it. We were told that candles were kept burning night 
and day during the period devoted to weeping for the empe- 
ror. This may be the theory and the intention of the higher 
officials, but those who had the matter under their charge, we 
were subsequently informed, extinguished the candles as soon 




PREPARATIONS FOR OFFICIAL MOURNING. 878 

as the officials depailed, and charged the cost of candles all 
the time, putting the money saved into their own pockets. In 
the centre of the front and smaller table was another censer, 
having three sticks of burning incense incased in yellow paper, 
and near its ends were two large yellow candles burning. On 
the south or front side of each of these tables was a plain 
coarse screen of yellow cotton clothi hanging down nearly to 
the ground. 

Some ten feet behind the tables was a small pavilion, about 
two feet square and seven or eight feet high, covered princi- 
pally on the sides and along its posts with yellow cloth. 
There were strips of cloth having two or three other colors, 
not red, mingled with the yellow, on some parts of the pavil- 
ion, knotted or braided together in a certain manner. The 
reason why yellow cloth was used in various places on this oc- 
casion is that yellow is the imperial color, and refers to or de- 
notes the emperor. 

A platform about fifteen feet wide and sixty or eighty feet 
long, raised about one foot from the ground, and made of un- 
planed boards, beginning about fifteen feet from the tables, 
and on a level with the ground on which they stood, stretched 
down toward the south. At the north end of the platform, in 
front of the tables, were a few pieces of palm matting. The 
raost of the platform was carpeted with common white cotton 
cloth. An awning of the same material was arranged over 
the platform, and large screens of it were placed on the north, 
east, and west sides of the pavilion and tables. 

The mandarins, gentry, etc., who were entitled to take a 
part in the farce which was to be enacted, advanced slowly 
and silently to the positions they were to occupy on this plat- 
form. The particular place which the various ranks of offi- 
cers, or expectants of office, were to occupy, was indicated by 
inscriptions or tablets suspended above the outer edge of the 
platform. Tlie military mandarins arranged themselves along 
the west side of the platform, and the civil mandarins along its 
east side. The highest in rank were on its north end, and im- 
mediately in front of the tables. 

A professor of ceremony took his position facing the west 
and near the north end of the platform. "When every thing 
; ready, he called out in a commanding tone of voice, using 




874 THE STATE RELIGION. 

the mandarin dialect (all the rest of the company preserving a 
most profound silence), " Take your places in proper order ^^ 
which meant simply prepare or make ready, as all were al- 
ready standing where they should stand, with their faces to- 
ward the pavilion. He immediately cried out, *^ICneel down^^ 
when one hundred individuals, more or less, being the highest 
in rank and in power in this province, all simultaneously 
knelt down. He then ordered them to ^^ knock their heads 
once^^ on the ground, which they proceeded to do by placing 
their hands on the ground (as boys do when they play on all 
fours, in imitation of a quadruped), and then inclining their 
heads forward and downward until they touched the platform. 
All the performers then raised their bodies to an upright posi- 
tion, still remaining on their knees. The professor immediate- 
ly cried out, *'*' Knock yoiir heads the second time^^'* and they ac- 
cordingly bowed their heads down in a similar manner. They 
then assumed again an upright position, when they were com- 
manded by the professor of ceremony to " knock their heads 
the third time^^'* which command they submissively obeyed. 
He then ordered them to " rise up" on their feet ; and when 
they had succeeded in attaining to a standing position, he im- 
mediately ordered them to " kneel," " knock heads," etc., as 
has just been described. When they had knocked their heads 
three times on the ground, they were commanded to rise to 
their feet, after which they were again required to kneel and 
perform the knocking of their heads for another three times. 
But, instead of ordering them to stand up at the end of the 
third time of knocking their heads on the groimd as before, 
the professor, while they were still on their hands and knees, 
commanded them to " begin their lame?itations,^^ and they all 
began to moan and weep in a whimpering, subdued tone of 
voice. This was kept up for a minute or so, when they were 
ordered to "^/op (heir crying^^^* ^^rise i/jo," and " disperse from 
their placesy^^ which they all seemed to be quite willing to do. 
Thus ended the ceremony of ^^ three hotcings and nine hiock- 
ings.^^ The assembly immediately broke up. 

What has been said of the official mourning performed by 
mandarins and expectants of office will illustrate by example 
what is meant by the State Religion, 

How deeply and strangely are many of the established cu»- 




THE SINFUL NATURE OF THESE OFFICIAL ACTS. 875 

toms of this people opposed to the spirit of the Gospel — to the 
commands of the Bible. The prostration before the living em- 
peror, or his tablet, or a yellow screen, so common on the part 
of Chinese officers, has been admitted by high mandarins at 
Peking to be of the same kind in its nature as the prostration 
before idols and images on the part of the common people. 
What else, then, can be the kneelings, and the bowing down of 
the head, which is performed more or less by all the acting 
and the retired mandarins in all parts of the empire subject to 
the Tartar power at Peking on occasions of national mourn- 
ing — what else can these performances Ji>e but of a supersti- 
tions and idolatrous, and therefore sinful nature ? 




376 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 



CHAPTER XV. 

COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

Primary Schools and Government Colleges: Primary Schools namerons.— 
Manner of Conducting them. — Three Colleges connected with the Got- 
ernment at Fuhchau. — Two under the Charge of the Governor. — Stadiet 
pursued in them. — ^Tuition and Room-rent free. — Two hundred and forty 
Students selected for each Annually, after Examination of competitife 
Compositions. — One hundred and eighty receive a Monthly Stipend. — 
Manner of conducting the Examination of Compositions in the Colleges. — 
One College under the Charge of the Prefect. — Manner of conducting its 
Literary Exercises. — Students in the first two Colleges may belong to any 
Part of the Province. — Students in the other must live in the Prefectare. 
— Examination of Undergradiuites before the District Mo/yistraH amd the 
Prefect : Four Classes may not compete at the" Examinations. — Students 
in Mourning for a Parent may not compete. — Notification given by the 
Literary Chancellor of the time of his Examinations. — Manner of enter- 
ing Names of Students as Competitors. — Manner of Competition. — The 
Numbers of the Candidates placarded in Public. — Examination of Under- 
graduates before the Literary Chancellor for the Pirst Degree, and of Orad- 
uates of the First Degree before him preparatory to Com/tetitionfor the Sec- 
ond Degree: Privileged Classes. — Manner of Competition. — Rewriting 
from Memory the Sacred Edict. — Best Competitors, to a certain Namher, 
become Bachelors of Arts. — They come under the Jurisdiction of their 
Literary Chiefs. -^Bachelorship may be bought. — Privileges of a class of 
Scholars next best to the Graduates. — Graduates expected to make Pres- 
ents to their Securities. — Extra Examination every twelve Years. — Chief* 
of Graduates receive their Appointment from Peking. — Method of con- 
ducting Examinations of Graduates preparatory to Competition for Sec- 
ond Degree. — Supplementary Examinations. — Salutes and Music in Hon- 
or of the three Companies which come out of the ExaminatiQQs first. 

Primary Schools and Government Colleges. 
There are numerous primary schools in China, snpported 
by the people of a neighborhood who choose to send their 
children. There are no school-houses, schools being oommoolj 
held in a spare hall or room belonging to a private family, or 
in a part of the village temple. There is no villi^^ tax nor 
any aid from government received for the support of schooU 
Each parent must pay the teacher for the instraotion of his 




CONCERNINO PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 



877 



children. Besides these, there 
are private or family schools, the 
pupils being few and select, be- 
longing to rich families. In this 
city there are no free-schools, 
where the pupils can attend 
without expense for tuition. In 
former years there were some 
such schools, sustained princi- 
pally at the charge of a very 
wealthy bank. But this bank 
failed six or eight years ago, at 
the time of a general panic 
among banks, and its suspension 
of business was the signal for 
the suspension of the various 
charitable works which it sup- 
ported. 

Girls are seldom sent to school 
or taught to read at home. Ed- 
ucation is not regarded as fitting 
them to fill in a better manner the stations they are expected 
to occupy. Pupils do not study, in school, books on mathemat- 
ics, geography, and the natural sciences, but the writings of 
Confucius and Mencius. These they are required to commit 




8CU0OL-IIOY WtTU fAN AMD PAIOBL OT 

IKX>K8. 




MAO&UIO ma MUOKt'* I. <., «IOITINU HIS LKM<». 




378 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONa 

to memory, and recite with their backs toward the book. 
This is called " backing the book,'*^ They are not taught in 
classes, but each studies the book he pleases, taking a longer 
or shorter lesson according to his ability. They all study out 
loud, oftentimes screaming at the top of their voices. They 
first learn the sounds of the characters, so as to recite them 
memorUer. Afler years of study they acquire an insight into 
their meaning and use. They commence to write when they 
begin going to school, tracing the characters given them ag 
patterns on paper by means of a hair pencil and China ink. It 
requires an immense amount of practice to write the language 
correctly and rapidly. 

There are three collegiate institutions at this city which are 
connected with the government. The studies pursued in them 
are the same in kind as are pursued by advanced scholars in 
village or family schools, viz., the " five classics" and the " four 
books," being a part of the thirteen works which collectively 
are often called the "Chinese classics." Compositions in 
prose and verse on themes selected from these books are reg- 
ularly required. These books are the main subject of thought 
and research — not that they are recited there, or that the 
teachers require certain parts to be studied in their presence. 
The teachers once or twice per month expound certain parte, 
or deliver lectures on the subjects discussed, or the sentiments 
advanced in these books. They pay no attention to any his- 
torical, mathematical, or philosophical books or subjects. 
These things are considered as not worthy of research at the 
colleges. If a student wishes to pursue any literary studies 
different from the classics, he must do it at his leisure, without 
expecting to receive any particular aid from his teachers. 
The study of mathematics and philosophy, or the sciences gen- 
erally, is regarded as of exceedingly small importance com- 
j)ared with the study of the classics. The latter are of use in 
the composition of essays and poems, required at the regular 
examination as trial pieces competitory for the literary de- 
grees, which are so highly prized by ambitious men in China; 
but attainments in the natural sciences afibrd no special aid in 
writing these essays and poems, or of advancing one to a high- 
er rank as a literary man or as an officer. 

The design of establishing the colleges was to encourage 




CONCERNING THE GOVERNMENT COLLEGES. 879 

And stimulate the students to write essays and poems of a 
liigh order. They have not failed of producing the effect de- 
signed, judging from the interest manifested by graduates of 
the first degree, as well as undergraduates, to become connect- 
ed with them. The small monthly stipend given to a part of 
the successful candidates for admission doubtless has some in- 
fluence in leading scholars who are not possessed of ample 
means to desire to enter them. But probably the benefit to 
be derived from attendance and the honor of being connected 
with them have, in the case of the majority of the students, a 
greater influence than the pecuniary reward in causing such a 
general interest to become members of the colleges. 

Two of the colleges are under the supervision of the provin- 
cial governor. He appoints the- teachers. The salary of the 
teacher of one is eight hundred tacls ; the salary of the teach- 
er of the other six hundred taels per annum, which is paid 
out of the imperial treasury. The customary presents made 
to them by the pupils under their care probably amounts to at 
least one or two thousand dollars more during the course of 
the year. These teachers are men of high literary ability very 
frequently, being members of the Imperial or Hanlin college 
at Peking. The high provincial officers must treat them with 
great deference when they meet. The teachers expect to be 
regarded as guests in the presence of the high mandarins — 
that is, the seat of honor is accorded to them. 

Those of the students who choose are permitted to live in 
the colleges, but few do live there. Each college has a largo 
number of rooms, which may be used by the pupils free of 
rent. The janitor, however, expects a present from resident 
students. Those who reside there make a more valuable pres- 
ent to the teacher than those who live elsewhere. Those who 
pay the most money stand the chance of receiving the most 
attentions. The resident students are also expected to make 
presents to their teacher on the occurrence of his birthday, 
and that of his wife, and of his parents, if living, as well as at 
the time of the national festivals in the fiflh, eighth, and elev- 
enth months, and at now years. These presents consist of 
cariosities, articles of food, or money. 

At the appointed day, early in the morning, usually some 
time daring the second month, the provincial governor, with a 




880 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

proper staff of assisting officials, meets those students, whether 
graduates or undergraduates, who wish to compete for en- 
trance to the highest college at the provincial examination 
hall. He gives out one set of themes for the undergraduates, 
and another set of themes for the graduates of the first de- 
gree. The compositions are finished some time during the 
same day, when they are handed over to the governor for hii 
inspection. Aflcr making a selection of those which he re- 
gards as the best, he passes them into the hands of the teacho' 
of the college for his examination. In this way, two hundred 
and forty students are selected as pupils out of the thousands 
who present themselves, one hundred and twenty of the grad- 
uates, and one hundred and twenty of the undergraduates. 
Unjust and unlawful methods are often resorted to by some 
candidates for membership of the colleges. Some students 
are successful by bribing the high officials, and others by their 
favor. 

On the following day the scholars of the first degree, and 
of the class of undergraduates who desire to compete for the 
privilege of entering the other college under the control of the 
governor, meet him at the same hall, where they write prose 
and poetical compositions as usual on themes which he an- 
nounces. He selects two hundred and forty of the composi- 
tions which he regards as most worthy, one hundred and 
twenty whose writers are graduates, and one hundred and 
twenty whose writers are undergraduates. 

Sixty of the accepted graduates for each of these colleges 
usually receive one and a half taels per month ; the remaining 
sixty receive only one tael. Of the one hundred and twenty 
undergraduates, only one half receive any stipend at all, which 
is one tael per month. The remaining sixty undergraduates 
are kept as a kind of reserve to fill up any deficiencies which 
may occur during the year in the number of those who receive 
a monthly allowance. The reserve of sixty are allowed all the 
privileges of the institution equally with those who are al- 
lowed a stipend. The rule is, that should any student who re- 
ceives an allowance be absent from three successive examina- 
tions, his name would be erased from the list, and some one of 
the sixty undergraduates be put in its place. Usually, how- 
ever, should a student be prevented from attending at the reg- 




MANNER OF CONDUCTING THE COLLEGES. 881 

ular times, he employs some friend to appear in his stead. 
The monthly stipends paid these students are received from 
the treasurer of the province. There are three days during 
the month when themes are given out and compositions pre- 
pared at each of these colleges — i. e.y the sixth, sixteenth, and 
twenty-sixth days. The teacher usually presides at two of 
these competitory examinations. The students who reside at 
the colleges are entitled to have their compositions criticised 
by their respective teacher. The teachers discourse on the 
classics to their resident pupils twice per month. 

It is the duty of the viceroy, the governor, the treasurer, 
the judge, and the commissioners of the salt and provision de- 
partments, each to attend in turn at one of the regular month- 
ly examinations of each of the colleges. In this way, accord- 
ing to theory, each of the six officials attends twice during the 
year. It is the privilege and the duty of each of these man- 
darins to preside when ho is present, giving out the themes 
and first looking over the compositions, afler which he passes 
them into the hands of the teacher of the college for his in- 
spection. It is customary for each of the high officials to make 
a small present of money to every one of the ten first best 
competitors, both of the graduates and of the undergraduates 
who are present at the session over which he presides. 

A list of the comparative merits of the compositions made 
by the students is in due time posted up in public. It has be- 
come a custom for the best students, both graduates and un- 
dergraduates, to send in their cards to the viceroy, or the Tar- 
tar general, or the treasurer, etc., as the case may be, a few 
days afler he has presided at the examination in the college. 
This is understood to be an expression of their thanks to him 
for his attention. 

The literary chancellor is expected to attend and preside 
once per annum at the competitory examinations held month- 
ly in each of the colleges. He gives out the themes, and de- 
cides himself in regard to the comparative merit of the com- 
positions, not handing them over to the teacher as if for his 
corroborative opinion, as is the case with the six officials men- 
tioned above. Most of the high officials who play the manda- 
rin at this city have for many years had the reputation of be- 
ing poor icholars, having obtained their offices by purchase or 




882 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS^ 

by bribery. Such great men must often make Indicrons blun- 
ders when they attempt to perpetrate literary feats on their 
own responsibility. Hence the manifest propriety of the cus- 
tom which requires them to associate with them, as it were, 
the accomplished teacher of the college at whose competitive 
examinations they preside. But the literary chancellor, being 
always a man selected for his position on account of his liter- 
ary attainments, is competent to decide on the relative merits 
of the compositions which are made at the session over which 
he presides. 

There is another collegiate institution in this city, bat infe- 
rior in rank and importance to the two which have been men- 
tioned. The chief director of this college is the prefect. His 
associates are the marine inspector and the two district mag- 
istrates, whose yamuns are located in the city. The examina- 
tion of the students who wish to compete for its privileges is 
held at the prefect^s yamun. He gives out the themes, and 
selects two hundred and forty men, half graduates and half 
undergraduates. The teacher's salary is only about three 
hundred taels per annum. He provides his own bouse, and 
the students live where they choose, meeting their teacher at 
the college at the regular days of examination or lecture. 
They are expected to make him a present of more or less val- 
ue, according to their circumstances, or according as they de- 
sire to obtain his especial aid in criticising their productions. 

The directing officials are expected to be present in regular 
turn, and preside once a month at the competitive examina- 
tions held at the college. Should one fail in attending, the 
teacher presides in his place. The teacher conducts the other 
two monthly examinations. The expenses of this institution, 
viz., the salary of the teacher and the stipends to a part of the 
pupils, are provided by the officials who are at its head. This 
accounts for the fact that the stipends are not promptly paid. 
The sum given professedly every month is only about half as 
great as the sum given at the other colleges. 

The competitors for admittance to the collegiate institu- 
tions under the control of the governor need not necessarily 
be residents of this prefecture. They may belong to any part 
of the province. Those who come from a distance must be 
supplied with the necessary credentials of their literary char- 




FOUR CLASSES EXCLUDED FBOlC THE EXAMIKATIONa 888 

aoter from their literary chiefs or their principal teachers, or 
they would not be allowed to engage in the preparatory com- 
petitive examinations before the governor for admittance to 
the college which they desired to enter. 

Those who become members of the third college mentioned, 
that of which the prefect is chief, may belong to the different 
districts which compose the prefecture. The establishment 
of it seems to have been designed to benefit only the gradu- 
ates and the undergraduates belonging to this prefecture, not 
those who belong to other prefectures in the province. 

HoamincUion of Undergraduates before the District Magis- 
trate and be/ore the PrrfecU 

To give an intelligible account of the world-renowned com- 
petitory examinations of the Chinese, and to detail some of 
the unlawful expedients which are oflen resorted to by candi- 
dates in order to gain a literary degree, will require several 
ohapters. It will be shown that, where they are impartially 
and faithfully conducted, the graduates must be scholars of 
more than ordinary memory and ability, and that as they real- 
ly are oflen conducted, the attainment of a degree is no sure 
proof of the possession of any more than ordinary capacity, 
and not necessarily even that. 

There are four classes who, themselves or their posterity for 
three generations, according to law are not permitted to en- 
gage in the literary examinations. 

1. The public prostitutes, — Among the descendants of these 
creatures there are sometimes honorable and talented individ- 
uals ; but, on account of the sins of their ancestors, these are 
excluded from the greatest privileges of citizenship, that of 
competition for literary honor. 

2. The piUdic play-actors, — ^This includes those who have 
earned a living as actors, whether chiefs or subordinates — 
those who have made play-acting their profession. 

3. The executioners^ lictorSy and the menial servants connect- 
ed with mandarinates, — ^Thcse include those who precede high 
mandarins when they appear in public, and who are supposed 
to be ready to do any bloody or cruel act if commanded by 
their masters, whether according to law or opposed to it. 

4. Thejcnlers and keepers of the prisons connected with ya- 




384 COMPETITIVE LltERARY EXAlONATIONa 

mun8. — ^The first two classes are believed to be entirely desti- 
tute of shame, else they would not degrade their persons for 
vicious or unworthy purposes for the sake of gain. The list 
two classes are believed to have very hard and depraved heartSi 
else they would never consent to engage in the business of 
their respective positions. 

The descendants of these classes, if more virtuous, respect- 
able, and humane than their ancestors, and if they are realljr 
desirous of changing their professions, and retrieving or rath- 
er gaining a good character, usually remove to a distant place, 
where their lineage and their antecedents are unknown. Their 
ancestry is a disgrace to them, and constitutes an obstacle in 
the way of their rising in society. 

Some three years since, the report was current at this plaee 
that an actor had been admitted to the third literary degree 
at Peking, when a censor informed the emperor. As the re- 
sult, he and about thirty high officers suffered the penalty of 
death for being privy to the fact that he had been an actor, 
and yet allowing him to compete at the examinations, where- 
as they ought to have prevented him from doing so. Among 
these officers of state was one who was at the time, or who 
had been a chancellor, and the adopted father of the graduate 
was one of the presiding examiners at the time of his gradu- 
ation. The report may not have been entirely true in aU of 
the details given. 

According to law, any literary man, without regard to age 
or condition, excepting the four classes which have been men- 
tioned, may compete in the examination at which he is entitled 
by his attainments to compete, provided it be not within three 
years afler the death of either parent. Should any bachelor 
of arts, disregarding the law forbidding competition for a lit- 
erary degree during the period allotted to mourning for the 
death of father or mother, be allowed to present himself at an 
examination for the second degree, and it became known to 
the examining official, he would be degraded from his rank, 
and the literary chancellor would in all likelihood be degraded 
or punished heavily by fines, unless he bribed to silence those 
who were privy to it. If only an undergraduate, his prindpai 
security would be degraded or disgraced. Literary competi- 
tion is deemed incompatible with sincere moamiDg for a pa^ 




DUTIES OP THE LITERARY CHANCELLOR. 



885 



ent. It would be construed into a kind of filial ingratitude, or 
want of filial love and respect, punishable by process of law. 

A high officer, commonly styled the Literary Chancellor, is 
the presiding mandarin at the last examination which decides 
who are the fortunate candidates that attain the lowest liter- 
ary degree. The chancellor is usually a member of the Impe- 
rial Academy at Peking, or is connected with one of the six 
Boards. He is often spoken of as Imperial Commissioner. 
His term of office is three years. Only one is appointed for 
each province. His official residence is at the capital of the 
province. His duties call him to travel to each of the prefect- 
ural cities of the province twice during his term of office, for 
the purpose of examining the candidates for the first degree 
and the graduates of the first degree. He admits to the first 
degree those of the candidates he judges are entitled to it to 
the extent allowed by law, and he exercises the graduates on 
themes preparatory to their competition for the second degree 
at the provincial city, under the jurisdiction of two examiners 
sent from Peking for the purpose. 

The literary chancellor sends 
notice to the diffi^rent prefects in 
liis province of the time when he 
will examine the literary under- 
graduates of the prefecture. Each 
prefect sends a messenger to each 
of the district magistrates of his 
prefecture communicating the no- 
tice from the literary chancellor. 
Each district magistrate issues n 
proclamation giving the undergrad- 
uates in his district notice of thr 
time when they will bo expected 
to meet him for examination at his 
yamun. 

In accordance with this notifica- 
tion from the district magistrate, 
all of the undergraduates in his ju- 
risdiction who wislf to compete be- 
fore him, preparatory to competi- 
tion before the prefect, make arrangements in accordance with 

Vol. L— ]{ 








LtTIEABY I'NDnUimAOUATB OK 8TI-* 
I>1U<T. 




386 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

established and well-known regulations. At least three days 
before the time appointed, each candidate must present him- 
self at the proper office belonging to his yamon, and receive 
from the clerk, on paying eighty or a hundred cash, a blank 
schedule. This paper, already stamped with the district mag- 
istrate's seal, he takes away and fills out with the requisite 
particulars respecting himself, as the name of his grandfather, 
his father, his principal teacher, and his neighbors on the right 
and left hand. He states also his own name and age, whether 
of largo or small stature, his complexion, and whether he has 
mustaches or not, and the place of his residence. It states 
also that he does not desire to go into the examination in 
behalf of another man, using another's name ; that he does not 
go for the purpose of acting as teacher or aid to another; 
and that he does not go into an examination to which he his 
no right, really belonging to another district, etc. The candi- 
date must take the paper thus filled out to some one of the 
graduates of the first degree who are appointed to act as se- 
curities to undergraduates. Any one of this class, without re- 
gard to order, may, if he is satisfied that the statements of the 
paper are correct, become his *''' principal security*^ by signing 
the document and stamping it with his seal. Some other one 
of the same class of men, whose turn in regular order it is, 
must act as " secondary security^'* by signing and stamping it, 
for which he receives about a hundred cash. This paper is 
now carried to the chief of the graduates for the district, who 
stamps it with his red stamp, for doing which he also receives 
a small fee. After having obtained all these securities, the un- 
dergraduate returns the document to the clerk from whom he 
received the schedule. He carefully keeps it for reference 
should occasion require. He gives in exchange for it another 
paper, stating the name of the candidate, and the number of 
his application. The latter keeps this for use on the morning 
of the commencement of the examination, presenting the clerk 
with about a hundred cash. The clerk now prepares a small 
roll of ruled paper, consisting of six or eight sheets, to the oat- 
side of which is attached a slip of paper, stamped with the 
seal of the district magistrate, and stating the name of the 
candidate and the number of his application, corref^ponding to 
the minutes which the candidate took away with him. 




EXAJHNATION BEFORE THE DISTRICT MAGISTRATE. 887 

Very early in the morning, usually before daylight of the 
appointed day, all of the competitors assemble at the proper 
place, where some one reads slowly, and in a loud voice, their 
names according to a list prepared by the clerk. As the name 
and the number of each are pronounced, he must respond, ad- 
vance, and deliver up the last paper he received from the clerk. 
In return for this ho receives the roll of ruled paper, having 
the slip with his name and number attached to it, which the 
clerk has prepared for him. lie enters the place provided for 
writing his essays, and seats himself at a table. After all the 
candidates have entered the hall, they are shut in, and the 
doors are fastened and sealed, allowing no ingress or egress 
until the compositions are finished, or until a part of them are 
finished, and the writers wish to return to their homes. The 
district magistrate, who, with enough of his underlings and 
literary assistants to keep order, have been also shut in with 
tlie candidates, now gives out the themes for two prose essays 
and one f>oem, which each competitor is expected to prepare. 
These themes are taken from the four classics. The candi- 
dates now apply themselves to their tasks. 

Each prose essay must contain some six or seven hundred 
characters, and the poem about sixty characters. The writers 
are not allowed any communication with outside friends, nor 
are they allowed to refer to any books. Each one is expected 
to rely upon himself solely. It is supposed that every one is 
familiar with the theme, inasmuch as it is contained in the 
Chinese classics. No intercourse with each other, no walking 
about from place to place, and no questioning about the sense 
is permitted. Each one of the company, whether consisting 
of one or two hundred or one or two thousand, according as 
the district has many or few scholars, busies himself with the 
mental composition of his poem and his essays, and the writing 
of them out on the ruled paper provided. The food of which 
each partakes is carried in at the time of his entering the are- 
na. Toward night, the essays and poems of some of the can- 
didates are completed, and delivered to the proper officer or 
clerk, who delivers them over to the district magistrate, and 
their writers are allowed to go out of the premises. In a 
short time another company have completed their work, and 
are ready to depart. The candidates must all complete what 




388 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONa 

they do before dark. It happens at every examination that 
more or less are unable to complete their tasks in time, or 
make some blunder in copying upon the ruled paper, or some 
may be taken sick. 

Before delivering bis roll of essays and poem over to the 
clerk, each candidate removes the slip of paper containing his 
name and number from the roll. He also writes his name and 
number on the comer of the back leaf of the roll, which he 
then turns over and pastes down in such a manner that the 
name and number can not be seen without tearing open the 
part sealed up. This is done in order to conceal the name of 
the writer from the knowledge of the examining officer until 
after the merits of the essays and the poetry have been de- 
cided upon. When the relative merits of the contents of each 
roll have been fixed by the district magistrate, the seal is 
broken, and the name and number of the writer becomes 
known for the first time. As soon as possible, the numbers 
are written in the form of a large circle in order upon sheets 
of paper pasted together, which are then posted up for the in- 
spection of the public on the wall which is always to be found 
directly in front of the yamun. The candidates, by a compar- 
ison of the numbers on the paper they removed from the roll 
of ruled paper, with the position of the same number on the 
placarded list, learn their relative standing. The higher each 
stands on the list, the greater the probability that he will suc- 
ceed. It is an object of ambition to stand at the head of the 
list ; for if the same person can continue to stand No. 1 at the 
close of each examination held by the district magistrate, he is 
almost sure to be one of the successful candidates when he 
competes before the literary chancellor. It has amounted to 
almost a fixed rule, that the one who heads the list at the last 
examination before the district magistrate will be successful 
before the literary chancellor, as an act of courtesy to the wish- 
es of the former, unless he should happen to become sick, or 
make some unpardonable blunder. 

The district magistrate repeats his examination from two to 
three or four times. The candidates need not procure any 
security for the second or following examinations before this 
officer for the current year. The clerk furnishes him a paper 
containing his number, and prepares another roll of ruled pa- 




EXAMINATION BEFORB THE PREFECT. 889 

per as before, on his paying the usual sum for second or suc- 
ceeding examinations. It is said the sum demanded by the 
clerk is greater the nearer one's number comes to the head of 
the list. At each of the examinations the candidates become 
less and less. It is not necessary, unless the candidate chooses 
to do so, to appear at any but the first examination before the 
district magistrate. He may pass over the other examinations, 
if he pleases, until the first one before the prefect. At the 
close of the last examination, a list is made out of the candi- 
dates, which the district magistrate recommends for farther 
examination by the literary chancellor. 

For the examination before the prefect at the prefectural 
city, all of the candidates which belong to the several districts 
which make up and constitute the prefecture must assemble 
at the appointed time, provided with the document, without 
which they will not be permitted to enter the arena. To get 
this document, each must apply at the proper oflUce connected 
with the yamun of the prefect and receive a blank schedule, 
which he must fill up in much the same way he did a similar 
schedule for the use of the clerk of the district magistrate's 
yamun. lie must have the same principal security as before, 
but it may be a different secondary security. On returning 
the schedule, fillcjd out, and stamped, and secured according 
to custom, to the clerk, he gets the necessary document, con- 
taining his name and the number of his application. The 
money he disburses to the clerk and his securities is about the 
same in amount as he disbursed previously on the occasion of 
his competing before the district magistrate. In like manner, 
he receives the roll of ruled paper on which he is to write his 
essays and poem on the morning of the examination before 
the prefect, on delivering up the document containing his name 
and number. 

The prefect examines the candidates by their districts, hav- 
ing the men from two or three districts come in at the same 
time. When the numbers of the candidates are paraded in 
public, in the form of a large circle, those belonging to the 
same district are placed together, the best scholar according 
to the judgment of the prefect being placed first, the second 
best in the second place, and so on. The general rules of the 
examination, and the giving out of them, are the same as the 




390 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAlONATIONa 

rules relating to the examination held before the district mag- 
istrate. It is the custom for the prefect to expect that the 
head man on the list at his last examination of the undergrad- 
uates, for each of the districts, will be adjudged worthy of a 
degree by the literary chancellor. If there are ten districts in 
his department, there are ten lists made out by the prefect for 
recommendation to the literary chancellor, and the head man 
on each of these lists is almost sure that he will be declared 
a successful competitor. 

It requires a considerably longer time for the prefect to 
complete the examinations under his care than for the district 
magistrate to complete his examinations. He generally exam- 
ines them all two or three times, each time several districts 
being represented. Usually at each session of the candidates 
from the same districts their number becomes less than the 
former, owing to want of ability to complete their essays and 
poetry in time, or to sickness. Unless one wishes, he need at- 
tend only the first examination before the prefect, but he must 
attend that, or he will not be allowed to compete before the 
literary cliancellor, unless he be a descendant of some ancient 
worthy, as will be mentioned hereafter. 

Here let it be observed, once for all, that on the coming out 
of the arena of the first company of competitors before any 
of the examining officers at any of their competitory sessions, 
it becomes the duty of the chief clerk belonging to the proper 
office connected with the examination to send, on a large red 
sheet of paper, the themes on which the candidates have been 
exercised, to all the high officers resident in the city where the 
examinations have been held. It is important that this should 
be done as soon as possible after the doors of the hall are 
opened, as then, according to theory, the themes become first 
known to outsiders. It is believed the high mandarins will 
take an interest in knowing the themes which have been dis- 
cussed in the competitory arenas. 

Uxmnination of Undergraduates before the Literary Chancel- 
lor for the first Degree^ and also of Graduates of (he first 
Degree before himyprejxtratory to Competition for the sec- 
ond Degree. 
The rule is that competitors of all classes of society must 




EXAMINATION BEFORE THE LITERARY CHANCELLOR. 391 

attend at the examinations before the district magistrate, pre- 
fect, and literary chancellor in regular order. The exception 
is in the case of descendants of certain ancient worthies, as 
Confucius and Mencins. These constitute a privileged class, 
and are not obliged to appear before the district magistrate 
and the prefect. They may commence their literary compe- 
tition before the chancellor, if they choose to do so. 

The preliminaries to enter the examination before the liter- 
ary chancellor are essentially the same as those before the dis- 
trict magistrate and the prefect. The ^^ principal security*^ of 
each candidate must bo present on the morning of entering 
the arena, so as to aver in public that ho secures him as his 
name is called out by the clerk. Unless he should be there 
and announce that he stands his security, the candidate would 
not be allowed to enter the hall. On the roll of ruled paper 
is a slip of paper containing his name, and the number of the 
range in which the seat allotted to him is situated, and the 
number of the seat which he must occupy. This he removes 
and preserves for reference. He writes his name and the de- 
scription of the location of his seat on the last leaf of bis ruled 
paper, and then turns it down and pastes it in a position so 
that the items can not be read without tearing it open. 

The candidate proceeds to write his essays and poem on 
themes given out after the doors have been shut and sealed up 
for the day. Its comparative merit having been decided by 
the literary chancellor, the name and the seat of its writer are 
ascertained by tearing open the portion pasted down. As 
soon as practicable, its relative value is indicated by its posi- 
tion in the list of names and seats of candidates belonging to 
the district of the writer, as placarded on the wall in front of 
the hall. As in the case of the prefect, the literary chancellor 
usually examines the scholars from two or three of the smaller 
districts at one session. 

Generally the literary chancellor requires the candidates to 
appear before him to prepare compositions in prose and po- 
etry only twice. The best on the second list of names and 
seats of candidates are the fortunate ones who are adjudged 
to bo worthy of the first degree in the scale of literary rank, 
or bachelors of arts. The number of candidates who can 
graduate at every term of examination held by the literary 




392 COMPETITIVE UTERAEY EXAMINATIONS. 

chancellor is not the same for every district in the prefectnre, 
nor does it have any proportion to the number of candidates 
furnished by the district, nor to the extent of its territory. 
The original standard was one graduate for a certain amoont 
of taxes paid into the imperial treasury. The number who 
could graduate became fixed in this way at a certain time» 
and remained the same from year to year, unless an extra 
number should, by the grace of the emperor, be added on spe- 
cial occasions of state, as the accession of a new emperor to the 
throne, the birth of a first male child to the emperor, etc. 
Large contributions of money for the aid of the govemmeot 
in cases of special need, by men living in the various districts, 
are also rewarded and encouraged by the addition of one or 
more to the number which is usually the quota of graduates 
for these districts. 

The number allowed by law to attain the honors of a bach- 
elor of arts, belonging to each of the districts in the prefecture, 
having been selected, there remains still a number of candi- 
dates who may attain the degree on account of the prefecture, 
and are ranked as belonging to the prefecture at large. The 
persons who shall constitute this class is also determined by 
the literary chancellor. One or more from the various dis- 
tricts are selected to belong to the class of the prefectural 
graduates in the established manner. 

The literary chancellor requires those who stand very high 
on the list at his second examination to appear before him at 
a supplementary examination, not on themes selected fi:om the 
classics, but to exercise them on retcriting from memory the 
whole of the ^^ Sacred Uclkt,^^ The Sacred Edict is the name 
of a treatise which was prepared by the Emperor Eanghi, of 
the present dynasty, for the instruction of his subjects on mat- 
ters relating to moral and relative duties. The copying of 
this treatise Avith absolute correctness is regarded an essential 
part of the preparatory examination for the first degree. 
Much deception is practiced, when the rules are not strictly 
enforced, by the candidates taking into the arena with them 
manuscript or printed copies of the Sacred Edict, made on 
very thin paper and in very small characters — a course which 
is forbidden by law, and which is not connived at by the high 
examining officers. Should one fail at this exercise, he would 




BECOIONO A BACHELOR OF ARTa 898 

certainly not attain the degree which his own compositions 
might entitle him to receive. But as this is a fixed exercise, 
students who are expecting to succeed generally make them- 
selves very familiar with the authorized text of the Sacred 
Edict. If they fail here, they have only their own slothfulness 
to blame. 

The successful competitors for the first degree, as soon as it 
is determined who they are, must call upon the master of the 
graduates belonging to their own districts, or upon the mas- 
ter of the graduates belonging to the prefectural class, as the 
case may be. The object of their calling is to hand in their 
names to be entered on the list of graduates in the proper 
place. It is the custom for the graduates to make their chief 
at this time a present of money, according to their standing 
in society and their pecuniary ability. The chief sometimes 
demands a largo sum of money before he will enter the names 
of the new graduate, especially if he is very wealthy, and if he 
has attained to the rank of a graduate by the use of unfair and 
unlawful means. The chief is usually able to judge pretty 
nearly the truth if he has employed improper means. If ho 
does not accede to the demands of the chief, or if the parties 
do not compromise the matter, the chief may represent tho 
man in a very unfavorable light to the literary chancellor, who 
may cause the man to lose his place as a graduate, to which 
some other more pliable one will succeed. The names of sev- 
eral promising competitors are kept in reserve until the quota 
for each of the districts and for the prefecture is filled up def- 
initely. The entering of one's name at the ofiSce of the chief 
of the district graduates, or 6f the prefectural graduates, is 
called *''' entering upon leaming^^^ or to ^"^ become a setoteat^^ 
or a ''bachelor ofarta^^^ as the phrase may bo rendered. 

From this time tho successful scholar comes under the juris- 
diction of his literary chief. He may not be arrested in the 
summary manner as undergraduates and the common peo- 
ple are arrested by the civil magistrate if he is charged with 
any crime. lie must bo prosecuted before the literary chief 
of tho graduates of his district, or the chief of the prefectural 
class, if he should belong to the latter. He is allowed to wear 
.1 button on his cap, which indicates that he is a graduate. 
He becomes at once a man of influence and of honor in his 

R 2 




394 coMPETmvE literary examinations. 

own neighborhood, and especially among his relatives, who 
are usually proud of numbering as one of their own kindred 
the man who has distinguished himself among his fellow-com- 
petitors by carrying off the prize. He has ready access to 
the presence of the lower class of magistrates. His literary 
rank gives him a great opportunity to play the villain among 
the common people, if he wishes to do so ; and if such be his 
character, he is always on good terms with the underlings in 
the mandarin's office which he most patronizes. Such gradu- 
ates are not few in this part of China, and they soon become 
hated and feared by shop-keepers and the common people gen- 
erally. Those of the rank of ktijin, or master ofarts^ thle sec- 
ond degree, who use their rank and power to oppress the peo- 
ple, are fewer in number perhaps, but more hated and feared. 
Their higher literary rank gives them greater opportunity to 
browbeat and injure without redress their victims, unless they 
comply with the demands of these pests to society. The Chi- 
nese speak of this class of graduates of the second degree with 
abhorrence and anger. When their chief becomes aware of 
their character and has proof of their misdemeanors, he usual- 
ly at once degrades them from their literary rank, but woe 
betide those Avho have furnished the evidence which caused 
their degradation, if their names become known to those who 
have been degraded. 

The above description relates to the established manner of 
competing for literary rank by participating in the regular ex- 
amination before literary officers. But there is another way 
of attaining the same rank, much shorter, surer, and less fa- 
tiguing, for those who have the necessary means, and are wil- 
ling to use them to attain the coveted rank. Those who have 
more money than brains^ by a kind artifice of the government, 
are permitted to purchase the privilege of wearing a button 
on their caps, and of being exempted from arrest and punish- 
ment by the civil mandarins. Until a few years ago, the sum 
which would, if paid into the treasurer's office with that de- 
sign, buy of the emperor the rank and title of aewtsai^ bache- 
lor, was one hundred and eighty-three taels. Nowadays, in 
consequence of the low state of the emperor's funds, it is as- 
serted that twenty-five tnels will suffice. The treasurer re- 
ceives the necessary sum, whatever it is, and reports the name 




PURCHASING A BACHELORSHIP. 395 

of the applicant to the proper tribunal at Peking, from which, 
in duo time, he receives the certificate which guarantees cer- 
tain privileges to the individual, who has money to spare, but 
not enough literary ability to enable him to gain the bachelor- 
ship. The possession of this diploma entitles him to compete 
for the second literary degree along with those who have at- 
tained the bachelorship by the exercise of their literary quali- 
fications in the regular and honorable manner. Those who 
buy their degrees are looked down upon by others. Their 
number is becoming year by year more numerous, on account 
of the great cheapness at which it is offered t^ aspiring men, 
and the extreme facility which attends an attempt to obtain 
it by those who have the money. 

Several of the competitors before the literary chancellor, 
whose essays and poems would have entitled them to gradua- 
tion, if the quota of graduates allowed for their districts had 
been larger, form a class by themselves. These are a kind of 
half graduates. They are not obliged to enter the examina- 
tions before the district magistrate and the prefect on the suc- 
ceeding year, in order to sustain their standing. They may 
wait until the time for competing before the literary chancel- 
lor arrives, enter into the arena under his jurisdiction, and, if 
their essays and poems are not of a very decidedly inferior 
character, they are almost sure of becoming bachelors at the 
next examination for candidates of the first degree. At the 
regular vernal and autumnal sacrifices to Confucius in his tem- 
ple, these half graduates have a certain part allotted them to 
))erform. Poor candidates are not desirous of sustaining the 
character before the public of undergraduates of this class, on 
account of the largely-increased expense it involves, without 
any corresponding substantial advantages. The rolls of ruled 
paper which they must procure from the derk of the oflSce of 
the literary chancellor, on which to write their essays and 
}K>cms on the occasion of the next competitive examination, 
will not bo prepared for them without the payment of a much 
larger sum of money than is demanded of the other candi- 
dates. The pnvilcgcs which scholars of this class have are 
mainly the exemption from the necessity of going into the 
regular examinations before the district magistrate and the 
prefect. But these examinations are rarely dreaded by true 




896 COMPETinVE literary BXAMINATIONa 

scholars, and besides, a strict and faithful attendance on all 
the examinations in course is a much surer method of succeed- 
ing than the neglect of them and reliance upon already ac- 
quired rank and possessed talent. 

The class of graduates of the first degree, to whom reference 
has been made as those who must be the securities of under- 
graduates, consists of a certain number of the scholars belong- 
ing to their districts. Their number is not the same for everj 
district, being greater or smaller according to circumstances. 
There are twenty in each of the two districts of which this 
city forms a part. The same men continue for twelve years 
in the office or station of acting as securities, imless they die 
or are degraded, or, as is more commonly the case, unless they 
become graduates of the second rank, masters of arts. In 
such a case, the deficiency is made up at the close of the next 
following examination of the graduates of the prefecture by 
the literary chancellor. Should one remain in this class at the 
end of twelve years in good standing, he, without any exam- 
ination, passes at once into an advanced class of graduates. 
Those undergraduates who are successful, and become bach- 
elors, are required by custom to make a handsome present in 
money to those who acted as their principal and their second- 
ary securities. The secondary security is said to be paid the 
larger sum. 

Every twelve years the literary chancellor holds an extra 
examination at the prefectural city for the benefit of two or 
three classes of the best scholars of the graduates of the low- 
est rank. At this examination, one from each of the districts, 
and one from the prefectural class of graduates, may be select- 
ed to form another order or class, the members of which arc 
only a little below the graduates of the second degree, and 
may be appointed to the office of a district magistrate by the 
emperor, should they have infiuence enough at court to get an 
appointment. 

The masters or chiefs of the graduates of the first rank, to 
whom several allusions have been made, usually receive their 
appointment from Peking. They may be natives of the prov- 
ince, but not of the prefecture, where they are appointed to 
act. In case of a deficiency under certain circumstances, the 
governor of the province may appoint some one to the vacant 




HOW LITERARY BACHELORS ARE GOVERNED. 897 

office out of the number of best scholars of the rank of setot- 
saL They are all subject to the literary chancellor, and re- 
ceive a certain stipend from the imperial coffers, which, how- 
ever, is not sufficient for their maintenance. They look to 
presents and bribes from the scholars under their jurisdiction 
for the balance of their livelihood. Each district has one such 
chief to superintend the affiiirs of its graduates, and there is 
also one in each prefecture who presides over those graduates 
who form the prefectural class, being selected, as has been ex- 
plained, from the graduates living in the different districts. 
The chief of the prefectural class resides in the prefectural 
city, and has the care of the large Confucian temple always to 
be found located there. The chief of the graduates belonging 
to the various districts has, by virtue of his office, the charge 
of the temple to Confucius found in the capital of his district. 
These chiefs may compete for the second or third degree at 
the regular examinations, according to their attained literary 
rank. 

The graduates of the first degree living over the whole 
province come, in the manner now described, under the juris- 
diction of the literary chancellor, through the chiefs or gov- 
ernors of the graduates living at the various prefectural and 
district capitals. Affairs of moment relating to the graduates 
in the various districts and prefectures which make up the 
province are required to be referred by the chief immediately 
concerned to the decision of the literary chancellor. But, gen- 
erally speaking, matters of no special importance are decided 
upon by the chief to w^hose supervision they belong — subject, 
of course, to a revision by the chancellor. 

It is the duty of those who have attained to a bachelorship 
to attend the regular examinations held by the literary chan- 
cellor in their prefecture. Should any absent himself from 
these examinations for three successive years without being 
excused, or without reporting himself to his literary chief, he 
would become liable to be deprived by the literary chancellor 
of his rank and its privileges. Should he become blind, or be 
enfeebled by old age or by disease so as to be unable to en- 
dure the fatigues .*ind excitements of competing at the regular 
^ l>eriods with his fellows, he may petition the chancellor, stat- 
ing his case. If the latter has no reason for believing the ap- 




898 COMPETITIVE LITEBABY EXAMINATIONS. 

plicant ifi be trying to impose upon him, he may grant him a 
document allowing him to retain his rank and privileges, with- 
out being obliged to present himself at the regular examina- 
tions. Of course, if he remains away hereafter he forfeits all 
prospects of obtaining the second degree, or of being employ- 
ed as an officer of government, unless he should purchase of- 
fice, which is seldom done by those who voluntarDy retire from 
the literary arena. 

On the other hand, should an undergraduate be able to at- 
tend the examinations regularly till he becomes eighty years 
old without attaining the coveted rank of bachelorship, the 
emperor, on being informed of the honorable fact by the pro- 
vincial governor, confers upon the aged competitor the title 
and privileges of a graduate. It becomes the duty of the 
governor to report such cases, and to ask for them the cus- 
tomary token of approval on the part of the emperor. On the 
receipt of the title, the old man procures the golden button, 
which he wears as a badge of imperial respect. The bestowal 
of the title on the octogenarian is designed as a testimony of 
the approbation of the emperor, who would encourage the 
pursuit of letters even to extreme old age. 

It is the duty of the literary chancellor, at each visit during 
his term of office, after examining the undergraduates at the 
capitals of the different prefectures in the province, to proceed 
to examine the old bachelors and the new bachelors, that is, 
those scholars whom he has just adjudged to be worthy of the 
first degree. lie usually has only^one examination, not sever- 
al sessions, at each visit. The object of this examination at 
the time of his first visit is principally to exercise them, and 
to prepare them for the next competitive examination for the 
second degree at the capital of the pro^^nce. It has no direct 
influence upon their prospects of success other than the bene- 
fit which practice produces. All of the graduates are expect- 
ed to enter the lists and compete. The roll of ruled paper on 
which they must write their essays and poem must be obtained 
of the clerk of the proper office of their respective literary 
chiefs. The fee demanded for the roll of paper is about a 
thousand cash. 

The examination of the graduates, on his second visit to the 
prefectural cities, is an important one. At the close of this 




WHO MAY COMPETE FOR MASTER OF ARTS. 899 

examination, the literary chancellor divides the competitors 
into several classes. Those who belong to the first class are 
arranged in order of their excellence, by their seats. The 
number of their seats are placarded on the wall in front of the 
place of examination. The seats of those who constitute the 
second and the third class are in like manner made known to 
the public. All those who are in the first and second classes, 
and the first ten of the third class, are permitted, without any 
farther examination, to compete for the second degree at the 
proper time. 

But all those below the tenth name of the third class of the 
graduates in all the prefectures of the province, and all those 
who have bought the bachelorship, unless they are in the first 
class, all those who were absent £nm the prcfcctural exam- 
inations on account of sickness, or lor any other reason, if 
they wish to compete for the second degree^ are required to 
assemble at the capital of the province several weeks before 
the set time for the beginning of examinations for the second 
degree, and enter a supplementary examination before the lit- 
erary chancellor. There are usually several hundred or a thou; 
sand who come up in order to take part in this supplementary 
examination. All those the number of whose seats in the hall 
during examination is paraded on the public wall are entitled 
to enter the examination for the second degree. There are 
always some who fail of the coveted privilege, because of sud- 
den illness, or because some blunder has been made in copy- 
ing, or because some rule4ias been violated. The names or 
the seats of these unfortunate scholars do not appear on the 
placarded list, and of course they are debarred from entering 
the examination for the degree of master of arts. 

The names of all those graduates of the first degree who are 
entitled to enter the list and compete for the second degree 
are recorded in a document, those belonging to the same pre- 
fecture being placed together. This document is transmitted 
by the literary chancellor to the governor of the province, 
who sends it down to the provincial judge, who hands it over 
to the proper clerk in his yamun, who prepares the requisite 
number of rolls of ruled paper for use at the approaching ex- 
amination. The candidates must settle with the clerk for the 
rolln, seldom paying less than one dollar. Three sets of rolls 




400 COMPETrriVE LITERABY EXAHINATIONa 

are made out for each competitor, as there are three separate 
sessions when essays and poems are required to be written. 

It sometimes occurs that the would-be competitors are not 
able to be present at the supplementary examination above 
referred to. In such a case, on proper representations being 
made to the literary chancellor, he appoints a second supple- 
mentary examination for the delinquents or absentees at the 
preceding one. In like manner, the names of those the num- 
ber of whose seats appear in public are sent to the clerk who 
prepares the required number of rolls of ruled paper. 

The first three companies of candidates who come out from 
the hall of the literary chancellor, where they have been engaged 
the whole day in writing their essays and poems, are specially 
honored as they come oul^ The large middle doors are opened 
by the breaking of the paflr seals and by removing the padlock, 
and they arc saluted by the discharge of three cannon, and by 
music. The cannon and the music are designed to honor them 
because they have finished their essays and poems so early. 
Afler each of the first three companies have come out, the 
doors arc shut, sealed, and locked up, as before the first com- 
pany appeared. On the appearance of another company one 
of the side doors is opened — no cannon or music salutes 
them. After this the door is lefl open, and each candidate 
for literary fame conies out singly. About the time when 
the doors are expected to be opened, and the imprisoned 
scholars to appear, the public arena in front of the yamun of 
the literary chancellor is crowded Ji>y the friends and 8er\'ants 
of the candidates. The friends come to congratulate the can- 
didates, and the servants to take the wallet or bag which con- 
tained the remnants of the luncheon they took in, their pipes, 
tobacco, inkstand, fan, etc. Advantage is often taken of the 
crowd of strangers from distant parts of the province or of 
the prefecture, by Chinese who have books or tracts for distri- 
bution, to scatter them among the candidates as they come 
out, or their friends, who meet and salute them with their 
congratulations. 




DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCIAL KXAMINATION HALL. 401 



CHAPTER XVI. 
coMPETmvE LiTEBABT EXAHTNATiONS — Continued. 

Examination of Graduates ofthtfirH Degree before the Imperial Commsnon- 
trtfor the second Degree : Description of the Provincial Examination Hall. 
— ^The Commissioners *' Wash their Hearts" at the Temple of Perfect 
Justice. — Time of entering the HalL — Its Regnlations. — Order of Proce- 
dure within. — Three Sessions of two Days each. — Names of successful 
Competitors placarded on the Drum Tower in the City. — Their orig- 
inal Compositions, after *' washing and repairing,** are sent to Peking. — 
If a Student dies in the Hall, the Corpse is taken out over the Wall. — 
Graduates of the second Degree go to Peking to compete for the third De- 
gree. — Rfjoicing, Festivities^ and Honors in View oftuccessfU Competition : 
Lists of Graduates hawked about for Sale. — Messengers ** carry the In- 
formation" to their Families. — Graduation celebrated by a Feast. — Wor- 
ship of Heaven and E^rth and ancestral Tablets. — Graduates of the first 
Degree vbit the literary Chancellor and kneel before him. — They Call upon 
their Relations and Friends. — Graduates of the second Degree are invited 
to a Feast at the Governor's Yamun. — After bowing before him, they Call 
npon their Relations and Friends. — Description of the Graduates* Proces- 
uon in making Calls. — If engaged or married, they are invited to a Feast 
at their Father-in-law's House. — Description of the honorary Tablets 
erected by Graduates of the second Degree. — Graduates of the third De- 
gree erect other honorary Tablets. — Special Honors conferred by the Em- 
peror on certain Classes of aged Graduates. 

Examination of Graduates oftJieJirst Degree before the Im- 
perial Commissioners for the second Degree. 
The provincial examination hall, where the graduates of 
the first degree who desire to compete for the second degree 
assemble once in every three years, is located in the northeast- 
em quarter of the city. It is surrounded by a wall, having 
back doors or gates, and two very large and high doors on the 
south side. In the centre, running from north to south, is a 
wide paved passage. On the east and west sides of this pas- 
sage there are, in the aggregate, nearly ten thousand apart- 
ments, or rather cells, for the accommodation of the competi- 
tors. These are arranged in rows in a straight line, beginning 
on the passage and extending back to the walls on the east 




402 COMPETITIVE LITEBABY EXAMINATIONa 

and west. Each row is covered with a tiled roof> slanting one 
way. Each cell is a little higher than a man's bead, three 
feet wide, and three and a half feet deep, having no door and 
no window. An alley about three or four feet wide extends 
along in front of the row of apartments. The cells on the 
side of the alley are open from top to bottom, letting in all 
the light and air that are needed, and more rain and wind in 
wet and stormy weather than are required by the occupant 
The two sides and the back of the cells are made of brick, 
plastered over with white lime. The furniture of each cell 
consists simply of three or four pieces of wide boards, whidi 
may be fitted into two rows of creases made in the two sides 
of the cell at the pleasure of the occupant, making a seat and 
a table, or a platform on which he may curl up and sleep, if he 
pleases to do so. One or two of the boards slipped into the 
lower creases, and pushed to the back side, forms the seat 
One or two boards, slipped into the front part of the higher 
creases, forms the table, on which paper, ink, or food may be 
arranged. The candidate for literary honor usually sits on 
the lower boards, with his back against the wall, placing his 
writing materials in front of him on the higher and outer tier 
of boards. Each row of these apartments is numbered by one 
of the characters of which the Thousand Character Classic 
is composed, and each of the apartments in each row is num- 
bered so that any particular one can be readily found. 

Such is a brief description of the miserable quarters where 
the educated talent of the province is expected to congregate 
and spend several days. Small, uncomfortable, and exposed 
to the weather, they seem to the foreign visitor but poorly 
qualified to be the residence of those who would court the 
Muses, or who would attempt elegant and elaborated prose 
compositions on a variety of impromptu subjects. Tliey sug- 
gest to some foreigners the idea of caff stallsj and probably 
many a Western humane farmer would think his cattle bat 
poorly cared for if they had not better protection from the 
weather than do the cells or apartments above described tf 
ford the candidate for literary rank. The most wealthy as 
well as the poorest sewtsai in the province, the man of seventy 
and the stripling of twenty years, must occupy one of them 
while competing for the second degree. There is no choife 




THE IMPERIAL EXAMINERS "WASH THEIR HEARTS." 408 

between them ; all are made in the same way, and all of the 
same size, and all front to the south. The precise seat of each 
one is fixed before he enters the arena ; so, if there were a 
choice, there would be no way to make the choice available. 

The presiding examiners are two special commissioners of 
high rank and distinguished literary ability, sent down from, 
Peking for the purpose of presiding at the examination in the 
provincial city for the second degree. They are called " mas- 
ter examiner'' and ^^ assistant examiner." It is supposed that 
if there are two commissioners, one will be a watch upon the 
other, and that there will be much less bribery and injustice 
in the discharge of their official functions than though there 
were only one. Nearly in the centre of the premises where 
the cells have been prepared for the use of the competitors 
there is a two-storied building, in which the two examiners, 
before the work begins, vow most solemnly, and call upon 
Heaven to hear their vows, that they will deal honestly in the 
discharge of their official acts and awards. This is called ^^the 
temple of perfect justice.^^ Their vowing to deal justly is called, 
in the graphic language of the people, ^*^ washing their hearts?^ 

On the north side of these premises are spacious grounds 
devoted to the accommodation of the examiners, and the va- 
rious assistant officers they have, together with their retinue 
of servants. Here are large and comfortable quarters for all 
these parties. 

Around the premises there are two walls, distant from each 
other about twenty feet. During the examination of candi- 
dates this space is patroled night and day by a large number 
of soldiers, in order to prevent any communication between 
the competitors inside and their friends outside. 

Just before the time for the assembling of the candidates 
and their examiners, the premises where the former are to be 
confined, and where the latter are to live while they discharge 
the duties of their mission, are swept, and cleared of the filth 
and the rubbish which have accumulated since their last occu- 
pation. Repairs, if any are needed, are made, and every thing 
is prepared for the approaching examination. 

As the time approaches, the city and suburbs present an un- 
usually animated and busy appearance. Probably twenty or 
thirty thousand strangers from all parts of the province seek 




404 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONa 

for temporary quarters either at the homes of their persoDil 
friends and acquaintances or at the houses which they can 
rent. There are generally from six to eight thousand gradu- 
ates who assemble at the hall ; most of them are from abroad, 
who come with their sedans, coolies, and servants, and some 
are accompanied by friends, who embrace the occasion to visit 
the provincial city. 

The imperial commissioners make arrangements to arrive 
here from Peking a few days previous to the commencement 
of the examination. They go to some palace outside of the 
examination hall, provided for their temporary accommoda- 
tion. The doors are shut and sealed, so as to prevent their 
having company. It is intended that they shall be watched 
and guarded, so that they shall not have any opportunity to 
be bribed, or to make friends, or even to become acquainted 
with those who are to compete at the examinations, or with 
their representatives. Every thing is conducted seemingly on 
fair and just principles, though, if common fame speaks the 
truth, there is much that is unfair and unjust done behind the 
curtain, or secretly. Any thicg like open bribery and public 
corruption would not be tolerated by the customs of the coun- 
try, or allowed by law, in regard to the approaching examina- 
tion. 

The imperial commissioners generally enter into their ya- 
rauns, located on the premises adjoining the grounds filled up 
with the cells for the competitors, some time during the sev- 
enth day of the eighth month. Each goes to his respective 
yamun, and, as soon as they have entered, the large double 
doors are closed and sealed, to remain shut for several days, or 
until the termination of the examination. The governor of 
the province also takes possession of the yamun provided for 
him on the same day. The general supervision of the afiairs 
of the premises belongs to him during the time allotted for 
the preparation and examination of the essays and poems re- 
<piircd from the competitors. The prefect of the prefecture in 
which the provincial city is located also enters and takes pos- 
session of the quarters prepared for him. It is his business to 
wait upon the commissioners, or rather to carry out their 
wishes, and have the charge of the red gate between the prem- 
ises occupied by the candidates and the premises occupied by 




REGULATIONS OF THE EXAMINATION HALL. 405 

the examining commissioners and assisting bodies of officers. 
He acts the part of a chief servant to the literary examiners. 

The competitors are required to go into the hall and find 
their appointed seats, known by a slip attached to their roll of 
ruled paper, usually some time during the night of the seventh, 
at the latest about the third watch of the morning of the 
eighth. Each one takes in with him the rice and coal to cook 
it, meats, or whatever condiments he pleases, cakes, candles, 
bedding, etc., whatever he desires, if according to law, to use 
for two or three days during the first session of the examina- 
tion. According to law, his box of provisions and his person 
are searched, in order to discover whether he is trying to 
smuggle into the premises any thing prohibited. Not a sin- 
gle line of printed or written matter is he allowed to carry in, 
lest it should be used as a help in the preparation of his tasks. 
In fact, parts of the classics or other works, written in very 
small letters, ^re sometimes taken in to the premises unknown 
to the officials. If any such thing is found upon the person of 
a candidate or among his provisions, he would sometimes be 
allowed to remain by giving it up, though oflener he would be 
expelled from the hall, and punished according to the circum- 
stances of the case. 

According to law, one measure of rice and half a pound of 
meat per day are furnished each competitor at the expense of 
the government ; but, in fact, this rice is oflen of such a poor 
quality, and cooked so badly, and the meat furnished is so 
small in quantity, that the candidates generally prefer not to 
depend upon the food provided by law, but to carry their own 
provisions, and a portable furnace and coal. In this way each 
can have his hot tea and his meals whenever he pleases. Wa- 
ter is brought at public expense to the outside of the hall, 
where it is turned into troughs, which convey it to different 
parts of luQ inside. Six or eight hundred men are provided 
by the government to wait upon the competitors, bringing wa- 
ter to them and cooking for them. No one is allowed to 
bring his own servant into the hall. 

It is the custom for candidates for the second degree to re- 
ceive from friends and relatives, when about to enter the hall, 
a prq^ent of something to eat, or to use inside, the first time 
they compete for the second degree afler thoy have attained 




40(5 COMPETITIVE LITERABY EXAMINATIONS. 

the first. If given the first time, it need not be ^ven the aeo- 
ond year. Sometimes money is presented, or a goose b gim, 
or a duck, or a number of bunches of cooked rice, tied op ia i 
three-cornered shape, with certain leaves aboat each, or a pig's 
foot and leg, or some sandwiches, together with pencils and ink 
of the finest quality. The rice balls, and goose or dack,ai« 
used as omens of a particularly flattering import, referring to 
the future literary successes of the competitor. These are ofr 
derstood as expressions of the desires of their givers that their 
friend or relation may attain the degree for which he propoM 
to strive. 

It is estimated by Chinese that as many as three or four 
thousand men are required to assist in the management of the 
affairs of the examination, besides the students themselTeB. 
This estimate includes the servants waiting upon the candi- 
dates, watchmen by night and by day, the menial servants and 
the respectable attendants of the various high oflScers engaged, 
and the several classes of literary men and writers who an 
employed to aid in various ways. The number of candidates 
usually is from six to eight thousand, who, with the three or 
four thousand other men necessarily employed, make np the 
aggregate of the occupants of the two premises, which are 
separated only by a wall, to some ten or twelve thousand meo, 
enough to constitute a formidable army or a respectable cttj. 
Some estimate them to be much more numerous. 

Besides the classes which have been mentioned, there are 
some eight other classes of men, ranging from twelve up to 
two or three hundred each, who go into the premises, and es- 
tablish themselves in the houses or sheds provided for them, 
on or before the seventh of the eighth month. A few of the 
classes and their particular duties will be mentioned hereaft- 
er. The great outside doors of the premises occupied by the 
ofiicers, as well as the doors of the premises occupied by the 
students, are shut, locked, and sealed up in a very formal man- 
ner as soon as all who are to take any part in the examination 
exercises have entered. Both egress and ingress at these 
doors are equally forbidden. 

Early on the morning of the eighth, usually before day- 
light, the calling of the roll is commenced, or the residing over 
of the names of all the candidates who are entitled to be pre»- 




EXAMINING COMPETITOBS FOR THE SECOND DEQBSE. 407 

ent at the examination. Each one present b required to take 
the cell which is appointed for him. Daring the morning a 
side door is occasionally opened to allow the bringing in of 
Yegetables and the entrance of men, should there be any who 
have been detained until that time. No otie is allowed to go 
out. 

When the side doors have been shut for the last time, and 
the competitors have found their seats, four themes for the es- 
says and the poem are given out, and the students know for 
the first time what are the subjects on which they are to try 
their talent at composition. These are selected from the four 
volumes of the Chinese classic called the "JFbwr Booka^^ by 
the joint action of the first and second examiners, three being 
themes for a prose composition and one for a poem. The 
eager competitors at once begin to ponder the subjects select- 
ed and arrange their thoughts. Each alley or row of cells is 
under the constant watch of men who profess to be anxious 
to detect any violation of established rules. 

1. As soon as any of the essays are finished, they are taken 
by the proper officer to a body of talented literary men, whose 
number is said to amount to several tens, and whose business 
is to examine each essay or poem as soon as offered, to see if 
it is composed and written out in accordance with the well- 
understood rules. If there is any violation of these rules, it is 
at once stuck by means of paste upon the wall in a public place. 
The luckless writer may not enter the arena and compete at 
either of the succeeding sessions for that year. 

2. The essays and poem which are correctly done, as re- 
gards form and appearance, are then delivered over into the 
hands of a body of copyists, numbering perhaps two or three 
hundred men, whose duty it is to transcribe them with neat- 
ness upon other paper, using red ink. The original manu- 
scripts are kept from the inspection of the examining commis- 
sioners, in order to prevent, or avoid as much as possible, all 
chance of their knowing to whom the composition belongs. 
The writer might otherwise, by means of blots or marks, or 
some private sign made on the paper, intimate to the commis- 
sioners who was its owner, provided there had been any pre- 
vious understanding to that effect as the result of bribery. 
These copyists are employed by government. 




408 COMPETITIVE LITERAHY EXAMINATIONa 

3. These essays and the poem having been transcribed, both 
the copy and the original manuscript are delivered to a class 
of scholars, who number one or two hundred men, and whose 
duty it is to compare copy and original together, to see that 
there have been no additions or omissions of characters, and 
no secret marks made on the copy. They work by twos, one 
looking at the copy while the other reads the original, com- 
paring them character by character. The characters of the 
copy must be the same as in the original manuscript, and most 
be well written. 

4. These, if found to correspond with each other, are deliv- 
ered to a certain officer, who is aided by several assbtants. 
The original, written in black ink, is delivered over to the gov- 
ernor to be kept, not for his inspection. The copy on paper 
written with red ink is passed along to a class consisting of 
twelve men of acknowledged literary talent. Each man reads 
his share. If he considers it well done, he signifies his appro- 
bation by putting upon the top or front part of the roll a 
S7naU red circle. If he considers its literary ability as decid- 
edly inferior, he lays the roll of essays and poem aside. Those 
marked with a red circle are put into the possession of the 
prefect, who beats a drum suspended at his office on the prem- 
ises. This drum is called the " recommefiding drntn^^^ which 
indicates that an essay and its accompanying poem are recom- 
mended to the examining commissioners for their inspection. 
They divide equally between themselves the" essays and poems 
thus recommended. They have twelve scholars of established 
literary attainments to assist them in their respective yamuns. 
Each one may decide in regard to forty-three or forty-four 
candidates. The head one of the list is determined by the 
master examiner. Out of the mass of recommended essays 
and poems at the first session, each examiner selects as roost 
worthy quite a number more than the quota which falls to 
him for future reference and comparison ; for the successful 
competitors must write compositions which receive the ap- 
proval of the commissioner into whoso hands they come at 
each of the three sessions. It therefore is necessary or pru- 
dent to lay aside as the best quite a number more than would 
be sufficient to fill the quota allowed by law if only one ses- 
sion's compositions were to be consulted and approved. It 




COMPOSITIONS PROrESSEDLY JUDGED BY MERIT. 409 

often happcDs that the writer who does well at the first ses- 
sion does quite poorly, or is sick or absent on the next two 
sessions, when his manuscripts, however well written, must be 
disregarded in making up the final estimate of the merits of 
the compositions at the close of the third session. The com- 
positions arc supposed to bo examined, weighed, and approved 
or rejected on their merits alone. When their respective mer- 
its have been decided upon, the original paper in the hands 
of the governor is torn open, and the name of the writer be- 
comes for the first time known to the commissioners — at least 
such is the theory. 

Those whose essays and poem are finished are allowed to 
come out in companies, commencing about the third watch in 
the morning of the tenth of the month, having spent two days 
in the examining hall. The doors are unlocked and the seals 
are broken under a salute of three cannons, the beating of 
drums, and the playing of instrumental music, all designed to 
lionor those who come out. The doors are then shut, and 
locked, and sealed, until about daylight, when another company 
is ready to come out of the arena, and similar tokens of honor 
attend their exit. About ten o'clock A.M. another company 
come forth, saluted in like manner. After this time, when 
any one is ready, he comes out. 

Of all the ofiicers and assistants who have been imprisoned 
inside, only the governor is permitted to come out on the 
morning of the tenth, after the students have left. He must 
return in the afternoon or evening, having visited his yamun 
and attended to his business. All the rest of the ofiicers and 
the assistants employed inside remain busily engaged in the 
discharge of their duty. 

All those whose essays have not been posted up in public 
on the wall during the first session, because of some violation 
of the rules, may enter the premises again some time during 
the night of the tenth. The calling of the roll and the seat- 
ing of the competitors commence about the third watch of tly) 
eleventh of the eighth month, less than a whole day being al- 
lowed for the recess. Doors are sealed, themes are given out, 
and every thing is carried forward very much as at the first 
session. There are five subjects given out instead of four. 
The five are taken from five volumes of the Chinese classics, 

Vol. I.— S 




410 OOMPBTITIVB LITKRABY EXAMINATIONa 

known as the "JF?t'e Classics^'* not from the *'^Four BooJcb^'^ four 
being themes for prose compositions and one for a poem. The 
competitors come oat, as from the first session, in companies, 
under the regular salutes of guns, drums, and music, com- 
mencing before daylight on the morning of the thirteenth, and 
finishing some time in the forenoon. They return to the hall 
late in the evening of the same day, or exceedingly early in 
the morning of the next. 

The names of the competitors, who are much less numerous 
than at the first session, are called over on the morning of the 
fourteenth, seats taken, the doors being locked and sealed up 
as usual. There are five themes on miscellaneous subjects, 
and one theme for poetry. The candidates usually are all 
done with their tasks and are out of the hall some time during 
the afternoon gf the sixteenth of the eighth month, having 
commenced to make their last exit some time in the morning. 

As has been intimated, the examining commissioners select 
three rolls of essays and poems, one from each of the sessions, 
which must all belong to the same scholar. They decide upon 
the literary abilities of as many sets of three rolls as the law 
will allow them to decide upon as worthy of procuring their 
authors the coveted rank of master of arts d la Chinois. At 
the proper time a list of the successful candidates is made out^, 
the names and surnames being written in very largo charac- 
ters. This list is posted upon the south side of the I>rum 
Tower in the city, thirty or forty feet high from the ground, 
where it is left for a certain time for the inspection of the pub- 
lic. It is regarded as a very high honor to head this list, or to 
be one of the three highest names. The posting up of this 
list is usually followed by considerable excitement all over the 
city and suburbs. 

The original compositions of the successful competitors are 
collected together, and prepared for transmission to Peking, 
professedly for the personal inspection of the emperor. A 
copy would not be sent, as the manuscript must have the 
seal upon it which was there when the unwritten roll was re- 
ceived from the clerk of the treasurer's office. All the tolera- 
ble blunders, blots, etc., which did not prevent the succoM of 
the manuscript in the provincial hall of examination, would bo- 
come intolerable when transmitted to Peking for reference 




ORIGINAL COMPOSITIONS "WASHED AND REPAIKED." 411 

and preservation ; hence they mast bo all erased or mended, 
so that the document will present a fair and neat appearance. 
The singular nature of Chinese writing-paper, and their prac- 
tice of writing on one side only, make this " waahing and re- 
pairing*'* possible, and comparatively an easy task, which 
would be impracticable if the essays and poems were written 
on foreign paper, even if written on only one side of the paper 
employed. Sometimes, even on Chinese paper, the writing is 
blotted so badly, or so many mistakes are perpetrated, that it 
requires an immense amount of skill and patience to repair the 
manuscript and make it look neat. Unless this repairing and 
washing is done properly, the imperial commissioners would 
be liable to be severely reprimanded, and perhaps punished by 
being degraded from their rank. It will not answer for the 
essay to be left behind at the provincial city, nor will it do to 
present one at Peking not having a neat and clean appearance. 

It often occurs that during the three sessions some persons 
are taken suddenly ill, and die before the doors are allowed to 
be opened. In such a case it is contrary to law and custom 
for the body of the deceased to be carried out of the arena 
through the large front gates. It must be taken to the back 
side, or to one of the east or west sides, and passed over the 
wall. This is not done to dishonor the memory of the dead,* 
but to prevent the front gates from being defiled by the pas- 
sage of the corpse. It would be considered a very bad omen 
for a corpse to be taken out through the front gates. Should 
any of the mandarins suddenly become ill and die during any 
of the sessions, the corpse might be carried out, after the ses- 
sion is ended, through a small door on the back side of the 
premises. The presence of a corpse, or passage of it through 
certain places, is regarded by the Chinese as defiling and omi- 
nous of evil. 

Graduates of the second degree are obliged to go to Peking 
if they wish to compete for the third literary degree (doctor 
of laws), or chin-tsz. The regular examinations of masters of 
arts for the doctorship is held once every three years. The 
competitors who wish to go to Peking on this errand, on pre- 
senting themselves for the first trip at the provincial treasur- 
er's yamun with the proper vouchers, formerly received for- 
ty-€ight taels for the purpose of defraying in part the expenses 




412 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAJONATIONa 

of the journey. This is designed to encourage the poor schol- 
ar who has not funds enough of his own — a present from the 
emperor. Of late years only half of the sum is received here 
before starting ; the balance is drawn at some place about half 
way, or after return home, having attended the examination at 
Peking. 

M^oicmgs^ Festivities^ and Honors in View of successful 
Competition. 

The deficiency in means for giving the news by daily papers 
in China is obviated, in part, by some enterprising individuals 
having the names of the highest of the list of candidates be- 
fore the district magistrate and the prefect engraved and pub- 
lished on slips of paper, which are hawked about the streets 
for sale. As the competitors before the literary chancellor 
are at first known only by their seats, the would-be news-vend- 
or comes to an understanding with the head clerk at the of- 
fice, who furnishes the real names of the favored ones before 
they are generally known in public. By having these en- 
graved and struck off, the news is made known a considerable 
time before it would transpire in the usual course of events — 
i, e., by report from one to another. The sale of the list of 
the successful competitors at the examination for the second 
degree, obtained by bribery of the clerk of the treasurer's of- 
fice some time in advance of the placarding in public of the 
sheets which contain them — unless published as a speculation 
by the clerk himself— oftentimes is very great. When first 
out, it frequently brings as high as twenty or thirty cash ; but 
after the list has been exposed on the Dnini Tomer ^ the price 
falls to one or two cash. 

The clerks and underlings at the various oflSces connected 
with the district magistrate, the prefect, the literary chancel- 
lor, and the treasurer, make haste to write out the names and 
the seats, or the numbers of those who stand toward the high- 
est on the lists of the respective examinations, each on a large 
sheet of red paper. This they carry or send, at as early a pe- 
riod as possible, if not too distant, to the family to which each 
belongs, with their congratulations. This is styled " carrying 
the information,^^ It is done for the purpose of obtaining a 
present from the family. The first one who reaches the fam- 




FESTIVITIES IN VIEW OP GRADUATING A. B. 418 

ily with the news receives, according to established custom, 
comparatively a large sum ; the next bringer of the news a 
smaller sum, and the third comer with the red paper a still 
smaller sum. The reward is usually given with pleasure and 
with satisfaction, as it is considered a mark of honor and quite 
reputable to have such messengers arrive with the good tid- 
ings. 

In the course of a few days after the names of the success- 
ful competitors have become known, the family to which each 
belongs gives a feast to celebrate the event. Two or three 
days before the feast, a large card of light red paper, inclosed 
in a deep red envelope, is sent around to each one of the fam- 
ily relatives, or intimate friends or respected neighbors, whom 
his family have decided to invite to the festive occasion, re- 
questing them to ^^ahed their light^^ on the entertainment. In 
due time the invited guests make their appearance with their 
present of money called *'^ congratulating politetiess,^^ 

At the appropriate time during the festivities, the successful 
competitor must worship ^^Ueaven and Earth^^'* as an indica- 
tion of his thanks for the honor put upon his family. After- 
ward he must, for a similar reason, worship the ancestral tab- 
lets of his family, and then he must kneel down before his 
parents, if both are living, and bow his head down toward the 
ground tlfhee times. Should one be deceased, his or her tab- 
let occupies the chair which he or she would have taken if 
alive. In case he has no mother-in-law living, and if he is not 
engaged to be married, his own mother, if living, proceeds to 
invest him with the red silk scarf, in the established manner 
for graduates of the first or second degree. This is a long 
strip of red silk, which is placed ovpr one shoulder and under 
the other, crossing twice on his breast and on his back, in the 
form of the letter X, if he is a graduate of the second degree, 
and finally tied around his waist as a belt. If a graduate of 
the first degree, the strip does not cross twice on his breast, 
but is simply put over one shoulder and under the opposite 
arm, and is then tied around his waist, having gone only once 
over his breast. In case he is engaged to be married, it falls 
to the privilege of the mother of his aflianced bride to put 
upon him this badge of joy for the first time in the established 
fashion, which is done at her own house before a long inter- 




414 COMPETmVE LITERABY BXAMINATIONB. 

val has elapsed. If be has a mother-ia-law, it becomes h^ 
happy lot to put upon him the scarf of joy and of honor. 

On the day appointed for the graduates of the first degree 
to appear before the literary chancellor to pay him their re- 
spects, they all rise very early in the morning, in order to make 
the customary sacrifice to heaven and earth. When this has 
been properly done, each must go and call upon his mother-in- 
law, or the mother of his affianced bride, for the purpose of 
having her own hands place around his shoulders the red 
scarf, unless, in view of distance or some other circumstance, 
she has been called upon to perform the act one or two days 
previous. He now sets ofi* in his sedan for the yamun of the 
literai-y chancellor, so as to be ready to go in with his fellow- 
graduates at the hour appointed. 

Each of the graduates on this imposing occasion is dressed 
in an outer long dress of light blue silk. His boots are square- 
toed, and usually made of satin. His cap is not the little 
skull-cap usually worn, but the larger cap of ceremony, on two 
sides of which (those which come by his ears) has been fast- 
ened a kind of artificial flower, professedly made of gold leaf, 
but really of brass foil, fastened to a wire. These project up 
several inches above the cap perpendicularly. 

When the time has arrived, all the graduates of the first de- 
gree enter the presence of the literary chancellor, and arrange 
themselves in order before him. As soon as the master of 
ceremonies gives the word of command, they kneel simultane- 
ously before him, and proceed to bow their heads down to the 
ground three times in unison. After this important ceremony, 
which is intended to express their profound obligations to 
their " venerable teacher," they rise to their feet and disperse. 
Sometimes the oflScer before whom this ceremony is performed 
rises to his feet, and, grasping his own hands, inclines his body 
forward slightly, moves his hands gently up and down, and, as 
it were, toward the body of graduates before him, repeatedly 
utters his " thanks" in a low tone of voice while they are on 
their knees and making their bows before him. Such an act 
on the ])art of the literary chancellor is believed to be a mark 
of his humility, and to indicate his unworthiness to receive 
Huch honor. 

After they have left the yamun of the literary chancellor, 




THE GOVERNOR FEASTS THE NEW MASTER OP ART& 415 



they proceed singly or in small companies, as they please, to 
call upon the prefect, and pay him their respects in a similar 
manner, upon their knees. They then make similar calls upon 
their respective literary officers, which are subordinate to the 
literary chancellor, and upon the district magistrates of their 
respective districts. In case of those graduates who live out 
of the district in which the prefectural city is located where 
they have obtained their degree, they must, of course, return to 
their own district, in order to pay their respects to their re- 
spective district magistrates. They must in like manner pay 
a visit to their principal teachers — that is, those who have in 
former years taught them the classics, and how to write prose 
compositions and poems. After this, they call upon their par- 
ents-in-law, their relatives on their father and their mother's 
side, upon their personal and intimate friends, and their re- 
spectable neighbors and acquaintances whom they wish to 
honor. 

The graduates of the 
second literary degree, 
instead of first calling 
upon the literary chan- 
cellor, as do the gradu- 
ates of the first degree, 
are invited to a feast at 
the yamun of the gov- 
ernor of the province. 
They have on their 
shoulders a thick cape. 
They have the red scai-f, 
the square-toed boots, 
and the golden flowers, 
like those of the first 
degree. Afler worship- 
ing heaven and earth 
on the morning of the 
feast, they proceed to 
the yamun, and at the proper moment present themselves be- 
fore the tables professedly laden with rich provisions, of which 
they may partake, but which are principally quite unfit to eat. 
According to the popular representation of this feast, it is a 




A ICrjIIf, cm LITBSABT QRADUATB OV TBB ftlOOlTD DK- 
OftKK. 




416 COMPETITIVE LITERABY EXAMINATIONS. 

ridiculous farce. The treasurer should furnish money to set 
the tables with a variety of palatable viands, one table for 
each graduate. In fact, the food provided is miserable in 
quality and of few kinds, and small in quantity. A table is 
professedly spread for each, some of the dishes on it being 
partly filled with food. The rest are filled with sawdust or 
something which will fill up, the top being covered with pa- 
per. Every table is provided with a small plate, wine-cop, 
and tea-cup, made out of real silver. Each graduate takes his 
position before a table. At the proper moment, during jhe 
time allotted for the feast, the graduates arrange themselves 
in order before the provincial governor, who may sit or stand 
as he pleases. At the command of the master of ceremonies, 
they must all kneel down and bow their heads three times. 
After this they disperse, to call upon the literary chancellor 
and the other officers, their teachers, etc., in regard to whom 
law or custom makes it their duty to call upon for the purpose 
of presenting their respects. After a little time has elapsed, 
the master of ceremonies calls upon servants to clear the ta- 
bles, and, accordingly, men appear and carry the contents to 
the homes of the graduates, or to the place where they are 
temporarily living, if not resident at the capital of the prov- 
ince, for which a present of several hundred cash is expected 
on delivery. If these articles reach their homes, they are 
taken and placed before the ancestral tablets of their family, 
to show the departed how their descendants have been hon- 
ored. In the case of those who live at a great distance, doubt- 
less the provisions furnished by the bounty of the emperor are 
not taken home. The difibrence between the real cost of the 
feast, and the sum charged or allotted according to law, of 
course is pocketed by the high officers and their subordinates, 
who have the handling of the money and the getting up of the 
feast. It is affirmed by literary men that every graduate of 
the second degree costs the emperor about one thousand taels, 
but that of this sum the high mandarins and subordinate offi- 
cials manage to pocket all but the few taels which are really 
spent at various times on his behalf. 

A few days before the newly-made masters of arts go to 
the feast at the govenior's yamun, they are honored by the re- 
ception of a black silk outer dress or coat, a cape, a court cap, 




THE GRADUATES MAKE VARIOUS FORMAL CALLS. 417 

and a pair of square-toed boots, sent from the treasurer, but in 
the name of the emperor. All of these are paid for by the 
emperor, and designed to be a token of his regard for the lit- 
erary abilities of the graduates. They, therefore, ought to be 
of good material and well made, but the fact is they are en- 
tirely worthless and useless. The treasurer has had them 
made up of the very poorest kind of material, and in the cheap- 
est manner possible, so that they are not fit to be worn on any 
public occasion. They are received with thanks only for the 
sake of form and name, not because they are worth any thing. 
The treasurer and his underlings have the reputation of pock- 
eting the difference between the cost of the articles as actually 
provided, and what articles suitable for use made of good ma- 
terials and in a proper style would have cost I The emperor 
is charged full price for the trumpery presented in his name. 
The graduates or their relatives are obliged to be at the ex- 
pense of getting good articles of the kinds mentioned for them 
to wear at the feast in their honor, and in the procession in 
public soon to take place. It is only the very poorest of the 
poor graduates who wear the articles provided at government 
expense. 

Whatever may be the law, or the ancient custom, or the true 
theory in regard to the boots, cap, coat, and scarf actually 
worn by the guest at this feast, they are now provided usually 
by the family of his father-in-law. This custom is known as 
that o^ ^^ presenting the boots and caps.^^ 

In calling upon their personal teachers, relatives, friends, and 
neighbors, the graduate, whether of the first or the second Ut- 
(ran/ ranks^ goes in as good a sedan as his circumstances will 
allow, dressed in his suit of ceremony, with cap, flowers, and 
Fcarf. Two men always precede his sedan, carrying each a 
bamboo twelve or fifleen feet in length, having toward the 
smallest end several yards of red silk entwined in the green 
branches. These banners have been presented by friends or 
relations as an expression of their joy. There is also a band 
of eight musicians who precede his sedan. Close by his sedan 
follows a servant or two, who are provided with a large num- 
ber of cards. In many of these joyous processions there will 
be seen a red screen, some five or six feet square, borne along 
by two men. It is made out of red camlet or red broadcloth, 

S2 




418 COMPETinVK LITEBABY EXAMINATIONa 

fastened into a wooden frame. On the two sides are several 
lucky characters, made of gilt paper and of a very large size. 
This screen is a token that the graduate has a father-iu-law or 
mother-in-law living. It is always furnished by the family to 
which his wife, if already married, or his affianced wife, if only 
engaged, belongs. 

The main streets of the prefectural city, on the days when 
graduates pay their visits of ceremony, present an animated 
appearance. Generally there are three days spent at the pro- 
vincial city in making these formal calls. These processions 
may be seen going back and forth in the streets, accompanied 
with music and waving of banners. The graduates seldom sit 
down at these calls, but pay their respects, and then depart to 
find other relatives or friends. Sometimies they do not kneel 
down, but only make the customary salutation of raising and 
lowering their clasped hands, while they bend their bodies very 
low, as if bowing toward their friends. On arrival at the house 
occupied by his parents-in-law, he is expected to kneel down 
and bow three times before the ancestral tablets of the family, 
as well as perform the same marks of respect before the par- 
ents of his wife, or the parents of his affianced bride, if not al- 
ready married. 

At some convenient time, the graduate, whether of the first 
or the second degree, is invited to a feast given in his honor 
at the house of his parents-in-law and at their expense, pro- 
vided he is married or engaged. They invite such relatives 
and friends as they please. The honored one, immediately 
after his arrival, is led to the place where the ancestral tablets 
of their family are to be found, before which he kneels and 
bows three times. He then performs the same act of homage 
or respect before the persons of his father-in-law and mother- 
in-law, who sit side by side. After this he sits down to the 
feast and drinks three cups of wine, and pretends to cat a lit- 
tle from dishes containing three kinds of vegetables or three 
kinds of meats. He then refuses or declines to cat any more, 
soon rises up, and takes his departure, as though he were in 
great haste and had no time to spare. All these things are 
done in accordance with established usage on such occasions. 
Drinking three cups of wine and partaking of three kinds of 
food are good omens, and refer to the three grades of literary 




HONORARY TABLETS ERECTED BY GRADUATES. 419 

rank — A.B.^ A.M.^ and LLJ).y or Setctsaiy Ktijin^ and Chin- 
tsZy to all of which the happy and ambitious son-in-law would 
have his admiring and loving parcnts-in-law understand he is 
making haste to attain in regular order and without interrup- 
tion, as men count one, two, three— one, two, three. 

Graduates of the second and the higher literary degrees are 
entitled to erect an honorary tablet, which is usually suspend- 
ed over the principal outer door of their residence ; another is 
put in the ancestral hall. The one who heads the list of suc- 
cessful competitors for the second degree has a tablet which 
contains two characters, which to the initiated intimate that 
honorable fact. These characters are often gilded, and are of 
a large form, between one and two feet square, occupying the 
centre of the tablet. The whole tablet is six or eight feet in 
length and of a proportionate width. The graduates from the 
second to the fiflh name inclusive on the list have certain char- 
acters which indicate the fact to those who understand their 
application and meaning. Those from the sixth to the twelfth 
inclusive have other characters to denote their relative stand- 
ing in the class. All who come below the twelfth are included 
under certain two characters, which are usually black and high- 
ly varnished. Besides these letters, which occupy the central 
portion of the tablet, there is an inscription in much smaller 
characters stating the name or title of the emperor, the year 
of his reign, the surname and title of the literary chancellor, 
and the number and the name of the scholar on the list of grad- 
uates. The near family relatives having the same surname, 
as paternal uncles, own brothers, etc., are permitted to erect 
a duplicate of this honorary tablet over their doors. Some 
houses have several of these tablets, erected in honor of differ- 
ent members of their family relatives, over their front doors. 

Those who, at the literary examinations of Peking, are grad- 
uated of the third rank of scholarship, have terms applied to 
them when speaking of them, and put on their honorary tab- 
lets, which indicate their relative position on the list of the 
successful competitors. Besides, there is an inscription which 
denotes the title of the emperor, date of year, title of viceroy, 
etc. Family relatives on the father's side are also permitted 
to make duplicates of the tablets, and suspend them as badges 
of honor or as ornaments to their homo. 




420 coMPEirnvB litebary examinations. 

When a graduate of the first degree has kept up his regular 
attendance at the examination for the second until he has ar- 
rived at about the age of eighty years without being able to 
attain the much-coveted literary rank, it becomes the duty of 
the governor to report his case to the emperor. His majesty 
presents the aged scholar with the title of Kujin, in honor of 
his long literary struggles. On the tablet which the old gen- 
tleman is authorized to place over the door to his residence he 
must put two words, which indicate that the honor was con- 
ferred by especial favor of the emperor himself. After the re- 
ception of this title, he may, if he pleases, and has the strength 
to endure the fatigues of the trip and the money to pay its ex- 
penses, go up to the capital and compete for the third degree, 
which, however, is very seldom done. 

There is a still higher literary degree, obtained after an ex- 
amination before the emperor of the best scholars of the doc- 
tors of laws. But it is not worth while to speak at length of 
this and other literary examinations of students at the capital. 
It is enough for our purpose to see them begin to climb the 
ladder of honor, wealth, and fame. The successful competi- 
tors on these occasions are sure of immediate, honorable, and 
lucrative positions as mandarins in the provinces, as members 
of the Ilaulin college, or as members of some of the Six 
Boards. 

A feast at the expense of the emperor is given at Peking in 
honor of the graduate of the third degree who has lived to the 
sixtieth year after he became Chin-tsz^ or LL.D. Such a man 
has lived through one complete cycle since his graduation. 
He may erect an honorary tablet over his door which shall 
contain the four Chinese letters which denote the feast in his 
honor to which he has been invited by the emperor. Such a 
tablet is but rarely found, and is a token of great longevity. 

In the same manner, a feast is given to the graduates of the 
second degree who have lived sixty years after their gradua- 
tion, if they have not attained to the third degree. Tlie liter- 
ary graduate has four characters indicating the fact put upon 
his tablet, and the military graduate has four other words in- 
dicating the same honorable fact. In these various ways does 
the emperor honor those who devote themselves to a literary 
life. 




MKASUBES ADOPTED TO PBEVENT DECEPTION. 421 



CHAPTER XVn. 

COMPETITIVK LITERARY EXAMINATIONS — Cofltimied. 

Just and legal Meaturtt used to jfrtvent Decqttion : Some of the Rules to be 
observed. — Use of a Stamp an Hour or two after Themes are given out. 
— An Examination of the Number of the Seat occupied by each is made. 
—Some Competitors invited to sit near the Literary Chancellor. — Unjust 
and unlawful /expedients used by Examiners: Graduation occasionally is a 
matter of Favor. — Private Marks or Characters sometimes given certain 
Competitors by which their Compositions can bo recognized. — Examiners 
often bribed. — Graduation of certain Persons frequently urged for Friend- 
ship's Sake. — Assistants of the Examiners sometimes strongly recommend 
the Essays of certain Candidates. — Unjust and unlawful Kxjtedients to suc- 
ceed used by Cotnftetitors : An able Writer is hired to go into the Arena un- 
der the Name of his Employer. — Clerks are bribed to aid in various Ways. 
— ** Exchanging Rolls." — Two Friends try to sit near each other by ex- 
changing Seats with others. — Many Competitors enroll their Names in 
two or more Districts. — Some **ridc Horses." — Essayn sometimes are 
Written outside, and smuggled into the Hall in sfnall Wax Balls or by 
underground Tunnels. — Sometimes Written outside, and afterward by a 
bribed Clerk mingled among those Written inside. — Sum to be paid for 
literary Help definitely agreed upon. — Military competitive Examinations: 
Skill in Archery and great physical Strength of paramount Imf)ortance. 
— Examination of military Undergraduates before the District Magistrate, 
Prefect, and Literary Chancellor described. — Examination of Graduates 
of the first military Degree before the Governor for the second Degree. — 
Successful Competitors call upon Friends and Relatives with a Band of 
Music and great Pomp. — Bribery less frequent than in literary Competi- 
tions. — Graduates of the second Degree go to Peking to compete for tho 
third. 

Just and legal Measures used to prevent Deception. 

The followbg aro some of the just and legal measures which 
arc soraetimes resorted to by the presiding officers at the dif- 
ferent literary examinations previous to examination of com- 
petitors for the second degree, to prevent or expose attempts 
to deceive on the part of the competitors. 

Enough assistants and servants are employed in connection 
with these examinations to prevent fraud, provided the prin- 




422 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

cipals and the subordinates were to be trusted^ and teere sin- 
cerely desirous of carrying out the laws and regulations. But 
the fact seems to be that the district magistrate, and the pre- 
fect, and the literary chancellor, or the imperial commissioDere 
appointed to preside over examinations of candidates for the 
second degree, are oftentimes anxious to bestow favors ooo- 
trary to law and justice, as well as their subordinates to re- 
ceive bribes for violations of the rules on the part of compet- 
ing candidates. The officers feel they can not trust their as- 
sistants, and the assistants are on the alert for ways and means 
to deceive the officers, or to wink at the violation of rules in 
order to benefit certain scholars, whose personal friends tbey 
are, or who have bought their aid or silence. 

Allusions have been made to certain well-understood regu- 
lations, which it is the duty of the door-keepers, servants, and 
assistants of the officers to see carried out faithfully. If one 
of the competitors is found whispering with another, if he is 
detected in copying from or consulting any printed or manu- 
script volume or sheet which he has taken into the arena with 
him, or if any such helps are found on his person or in his pos- 
session, or if he is seen passing along to another person any 
written scroll, or ff he is seen to use paper diffi^rent from that 
provided by the clerk, or if it becomes manifest that he is 
writing for another to copy, that he is acting an assumed part, 
etc., it is the duty of some one of the assistants of the presid- 
ing officer to seize a certain stamp and proceed to impress it 
upon the roll of ruled paper with which the student competi- 
tor was provided on entering the arena. This stamping means 
that the individual in question has ^^ violated the ndes^^^ and 
after his roll has been stamped it will not be read and exam- 
ined, no matter how good it may be. Nor will the violator 
of the regulations be allowed to enter any subsequent exam- 
ination for that year. Doubtless many violations of the regu- 
lations are connived at by the clerks and assistants if done by 
a personal friend, or by one whom it will be profitable U> allow 
to cheat, especially if a bonus should have been previously 
slipped into the hands of any principal clerk as a proviso lest 
something should unfortunately occur. In such cases the cul- 
prit is screened, if possible. Of course, if the violation is no- 
ticed by the presiding officer, the roll of the violator of the 




EXPEDIENT OF STAMPING THE BOLLS OF PAPER. 428 

rules must be promptly stamped, to save the honor and the 
reputation of the examiner. 

Some time after the doors have been sealed and locked up 
for the day and the students have taken their seats, the follow- 
ing device is resorted to in order to prevent a certain kind of 
deception on the part of competitors. About an hour or two 
after themes have been made known, and the students have 
had time to arrange their thoughts and have commenced the 
copying off of their essays or poem, a man goes round to each 
competitor's seat with a stamp, and stamps the paper at the 
precise place where the last character has been written, as at 
the middle of the eighth line, or the end of the fifth, as the 
case may be. If no beginning has been made on the roll of 
ruled paper, the scroll is simply stamped on the outitide. Aftr 
cr this stamp has been impressed upon his scroll at the place 
where he had arrived in writing off his prose composition or 
bis poem, the presiding examiner is pretty sure that no decep- 
tion will be practiced upon him, unless aid be received from 
some sheet or book which has been smuggled in and consult- 
ed ; for at that stage of the proceedings it is usually too 
early to receive essays or poems written by confederates with- 
in the arena or without it And unless a beginning has been 
already made, and should the roll be stamped on the outside, 
any essay or poem thereafter written out in it will not receive 
any attention from the examiner and judge. Supj)08e that a 
beginning has been already made on the first theme in antici- 
pation of this stamping of the roll, and an essay which had 
been composed by an accomplice, who could not know, of 
course, how the commenced essay began, should afterward be 
received in time to be copied off on the ruled piper, the two 
parts would be very unlikely to match each other. The style 
of the part which was furnished by a confederate would bo 
apt to differ very much from the style of the part at the be- 
ginning, written by the competitor at his seat in the hall. 
Unless the parts should be so composed as to match each oth- 
er very well, the examining officer can readily detect any at- 
tempt at deception, so far as regards the splicing on to the 
part above the stamp enough to complete the essay from a 
composition made outside of the premises or by an accomplice 
within. It is barely possible that the competitor may have 




424 COMPETITIVE LITERABY EXAMINATIONS. 

genius enough so to alter and modify the beginning of an es- 
say prepared by a confederate as to have it properly match, or 
splice on the few lines he may have been able to compose be- 
fore the paper was stamped. But it is not often that one who 
is not able to prepare his own essay so as to have it accepted, 
has genius enough to modify and change that of another man 
so as to join it on to a fragment of his own composition, in 
such a manner that both parts shall seem to the practiced eye 
and judgment of those who are on the look-out for discrepan- 
cies to have been composed by one person. 

It has been already explained that the candidates before the 
literary chancellor have their seats fixed upon before they en- 
ter his yamun to compete for the first degree. The seats are 
arranged in rows, the rows being numbered with some charac- 
ter in the Millenary Character Classic in regular order. The 
seats in each row are numbered regularly one, two, three, etc. 
A slip of paper attached to his roll of ruled paper has the 
character indicating the row of scats and the number of his 
alloted scat in tliat row written or stamped upon it. He must, 
according to the regulations, occupy this particular seat during 
all the time that he is in the hall writing his essays and poem. 
During the session at any time, the examining officer may 
send around one or more clerks or assistants to examine the 
slip on the roll and the scat occupied by the competitor to 
whom the roll belongs, or is supposed to belong from the fact 
of its being in his possession, and from the circumstance of his 
being engaged in writing upon its pages. If the memoranda 
on the slip correspond with the row and the seat occupied by 
the candidate, it is taken for granted that every thing is right. 
Should, however, there be any discrepancy in regard to either 
row or number compared with the items of the slip at any 
time during the period allotted to the composition of the es- 
says and the poem, it is taken for proof that there is an at- 
tempt at deception being practiced, and the paper of the stu- 
dent is summarily stamped with the stamp indicating that the 
rules have been violated. Any excuse or explanation which 
may be attempted is regarded only as corroborative evidence 
that the person faulted is not honest. Should he say " I mis- 
took the range of seat," laying the blame upon poor eyesight, 
or haste, or want of attention, he would be answered, " Are 




426 

you not a scholar, and are you really as stupid you pre- 
tend ? If so, there would be no use in trying to compete." 
This comparing the slips and scats to see if they correspond 
is called " examination of the marks,^^ Of course, it is dread- 
ed only by the competitors who are conscious of endeavoring 
to succeed by unjust and deceptive measures ; an honest stu- 
dent has no reason to fear the result of this examination. Not- 
withstanding all the vigilance of the examiner and his assbt- 
ants, even if these officials arc desirous of doing honestly 
their duties, students sometimes devise means to accomplish 
their ends by changing their seats without detection, and, of 
course, without exposure and dishonor, as will be explained 
below. 

It sometimes occurs that the literary chancellor orders the 
clerk at the proper office connected with his yamun to have 
fifty or sixty of the best scholars, according to the lists recom- 
mended by the district magistrate and the prefect, to sit in a 
certain part of the hall during the sessions of his examinations, 
near which he himself is to be engaged. The others are dis- 
tributed over the east and west sides of the hall, some of them 
at a considerable distance from his tribunal. The principal 
object of this arrangement, while it is professedly intended to 
honor these men by having them occupy seats near the person 
of the literary chancellor, is to have them under his personal 
supervision. In this way ho can the more readily detect any 
attempt at deception on their part, either by consulting sheets 
of printed or manuscript papers, or by receiving aid in any 
form from people connected with the yamun directly or indi- 
rectly. When these competitors are thus seated under the 
immediate and watchful eye of the chief, his servants or his 
literary assistants find it usually extremely difficult to pass to 
any of their number a scroll received from persons outside of 
the arena or composed within the premises. Notwithstanding 
the honor of being thus seated, even honest students generally 
prefer to be seated in some other part of the arena, as it af- 
fords no advantages, and they feel they are under the constant 
personal espionage of their literary judge. Of course, students 
who desire to make use of unfair and unlawful means to attain 
success dislike extremely to bo obliged to take their seats at 
the upper end of the arena, and within speaking distance of 




426 COMPETITIVE LITERABY EXAMINATIONS. 

the literary chancellor. But what he wishes must be done 
with apparent pleasure. A sullen and dissatisfied appearance 
would militate against them. As these honored competiton 
are few in number, and as they may not at pleasure vacate 
their seats and ramble over the premises, but must remain at 
their posts, it is competent for the literary chancellor to pre- 
vent their communicating with any of the servants or the as- 
sistants more than he is pleased to permit, and he may person- 
ally inspect all that is done to them or for them, and prevent, 
if he is sincerely desirous of preventing, the use of unlawful 
means. 

The preceding account or description of the lawful expedi- 
ents employed to prevent the use of any unfair and unlawful 
methods to insure success on the part of the competitors re- 
lates to those examinations which result in the graduation of 
bachelors, not masters of arts. In regard to the measures re- 
sorted to in examinations before the imperial commissioners 
for the second degree something has already been said. It is 
difficult to attain to very clear views in detail concerning the 
methods employed to prevent fraud and deception at the ex- 
aminations before these commissioners. Enough was said to 
show that abundant measures are employed to prevent the 
use of unfair means, provided the servants and literary assist- 
ants connected with the premises are faithful and strict in the 
discharge of the duties of their stations. 

It must be sufficiently evident, from what has been explained 
and suggested, that when the presiding examiners, and their 
assistants and underlings in the examination of undergradu- 
ates or graduates, are truly anxious to detect imposition, and 
prevent the employment of unjust and unlawful helps in the 
composition of the essays and poems, it is impossible for the 
competitors to succeed in duping them. 

It is affirmed that very often the literary chancellor and the 
imperial commissioners are bribed to confer degrees u]K>n cer- 
tain com])etitors. Sometimes large sums are given in order 
to corrupt these officials. It is an easy task to arrange such 
matters with the literary chancellor, if he is willing to be per- 
suaded, for he dwells at the provincial capital for three year*, 
and respectable men may readily gain access to his person. 
In regard to the imperial commissioners, it is more difficult to 




EXAMINERS OFTEN INFLUENCED BY BRIBES. 427 

gain access to them afler their arrival at the capital of the 
province, for, as has been remarked, they are shut up inside of 
sealed doors in their temporary residences before they enter 
upon the discharge of their official duties in the premises allot- 
ted for their use during the preparation and examination of 
essays at the hall. It is the design of the emperor that they 
shall have no intercourse with the people of the province, lest 
they should be tempted to do unlawful things. This practical 
difficulty is oflen remedied by those- who wish to bribe them, 
as well as by those who wish to prefer some claim for their fa- 
vor, by sending on messengers with letters and proposals to 
meet them while several days' journey distant from the pro- 
vincial city. In this way every thing may be arranged to the 
satisfaction of the competitors before the commissioners reach 
the city where they expect to exercise their official functions. 
The stanza or clause of the poem, or the characters which are 
to be inserted at specified places in the compositions to bo 
made, are fixed upon, and it only remains to be seen whether 
the commissioner interested in the individual will succeed in 
getting possession of these compositions, which can not always 
be affirmed with certainty. 

Sometimes the district magistrate or the prefect, as a mat- 
ter of favor to a relative or tor friendship's sake, will consent 
to place at the head of the lists of the candidates they recom- 
mend to the literary chancellor names of certain candidates, 
and frequently they are induced to make certain individuals 
head their lists, in view of the sum of money which is secured 
to them in case these individuals actually come out of the are- 
na before the literary chancellor accepted " bachelors." Some- 
times, it is affirmed, they dare even to intimate to the literary 
chancellor the pleasure it would give them, and the obliga- 
tions under which they would be laid, if certain persons on 
their list could be deemed worthy of a degree. In such cases, 
their intimations are understood by the chancellor, and if he is 
friendly with them, and can not advance his own interests in 
a better way, these persons are almost sure to become success- 
ful competitors. In like manner, occasionally the high officers 
found at the provincial city use their influence with the liter- 
ary chancellor />r«wa^/y, but in such a manner that he can not 
misunderstand their meaning. He is generally believed to 




428 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

liave no personal objection to making friends among high man- 
darins by doing little favors for them which come in his line 
of business, or to replenishing his purse with the Tolontarj 
presents of his affectionate and obliged pupils. 

Stories are current relating to literary chancellors who were 
very strict, and to others who were very remiss. Of a certain 
literary chancellor it is related that he was so strict that he 
would allow no one but himself in the hall afler the themes 
had been given out. He actually turned all his assistants and 
servants out of the premises, shutting and fastening the inner 
doors with his own hands ; but one of his chief clerks man- 
aged to speak with him during the session, and to fasten upon 
his garments a paper which had been prepared on the themes 
given out by an accomplice, in accordance with a previous un- 
derstanding. This paper the literary chancellor unwittingly 
took back into the arena, where it was dexterously removed 
from his clothing by one of the competitors. 

Unjust and tmlaicful Expedients used by Examiners. 
Generally speaking, the examining officers are not averse to 
receiving bribes to give the preference to certain individuals, 
and sometimes they are themselves desirous to confer favors 
upon certain candidates to requite an act of kindness received 
on a former occasion, or to oblige a friend or relative. For 
instance, the literary chancellor or the imperial commissioners 
sent to preside at the examinations may have relatives or 
friends living in the province, who have sons who would like 
to become "bachelors" or "masters;" or they may have 
friends in other provinces to whom they feel under obligations, 
who have friends or relatives living in this, who would not 
object to having some of their children, or brothers, or uncles 
graduate. As soon as the name of a new literary chancellor 
or the names of new imperial examining commissioners trans- 
pire, plans are often laid in this and other provinces which it 
is designed shall lead to the graduation of various competitors, 
as a matter of favor to some personal friend or family rela- 
tive. If the literary chancellor wishes to bestow a bachelor- 
ship upon any one, it is the simplest and easiest thing imagin- 
able. He may become personally acquainted with the indi- 
vidual, and give him a private signal or mark to be made upon 




UNLAWFUL EXPEDIENTS USED BY EXAMINERS. 429 

a particular part of his essay ; or tho whole matter may be ar- 
ranged by a confidential friend of the aspiring scholar ; or he 
may have him seated near him in the last examination preced- 
ing the making out of the list of successful candidates, and so 
make sure of obtaining his manuscript. Ue need only mark 
it as accepted, and the thing is accomplished. 

Should either of the commissioners presiding over the ex- 
amination of candidates for the second degree wish to confer 
a degree upon a certain individual, he has only to give him 
two or three characters to insert in a specified part of the es- 
say, and the essay will then be easily recognized. Should the 
composition be posted upon the wall for violation of the rules, 
tho individual would be rejected, and there would be no re- 
source ; or should it fall into the hands of the other commis- 
sioner, the individual might not be successful. It would de- 
pend more on its merits. Should the composition not be " rec- 
otmnendeiT^ by the subordinate literary assistants who exam- 
ine the essays and poems before they go before the commis- 
sioners themselves, but rejected because of decidedly inferior 
worth, in case the commissioner should be determined to try 
and find them, he would only have to report to the subordinate 
assistants that there were not enough good ones recommend- 
ed and sent up to him, when they would be obliged to recom- 
mend some more which they deemed the next best. In such 
cases, these assistants usually suspect that there is favoritism 
or bribery at the bottom of the desire for more essays and 
poems. The commissioner may or may not find the particular 
essays and poem. Should he find one set at any of the exam- 
inations, as first, second, or third, there are means by which he 
can obtain the other two to make up the three sets. What is 
meant by saying ho may give tho candidate certain characters 
to insert at certain places in his essay may be illustrated by 
tho following supposition : he instructs him to use the word 
"A^awcn" on tho second page, sixth column, and fourteenth 
space, and tho word "earM" on tho fourth page, third column, 
and fourth space, or near the beginning of the line. As it 
would be a very rare chance if any essay should have these 
two characters so placed except it was planned for a purpose, 
the examining conmiissioner, as soon as he comes across these 
words, understands who the writer is. It will be remembered 




430 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATION& 

that the original manuscripts in black ink are not seen by the 
commissioner, but a faithful copy, minus marks and blots, eUx, 
written out in red ink. 

Nowadays it has become more customary for the commis- 
sioners to give the favored one a line or two of poetry to use 
at the end, or the beginning, or the middle of his poem, thin 
to give certain characters to be used according to a private 
understanding. A few years since, a very large proportion of 
the graduates of the first degree were very young ^ and it was 
said, in explanation, that the literary chancellor who presided 
at the examination when they graduated loved to graduate 
young candidates. Others, it is said, sometimes carry out the 
contrary caprice of graduating old men. In all such cases, it 
is not probable that the selection of the fortunate ones was 
made according to the merit of their compositions. 

It occurs not unfrequently that the chief clerk, in connectioo 
with the yamun of the literary chancellor, or some of the high 
literary assistants who are employed in connection with the 
examination of candidates for the second degree, become in- 
terested in the success of certain candidates either because they 
are relatives or personal friends, or because they have been 
bribed to forward their interests. In such cases they take oc- 
casion to recommend strongly certain manuscripts, which they 
Jire able to distinguish from all others by private marks. If 
the examining judge should seem disposed to pass them by as 
unworthy, they sometimes presume to recommend again and 
again with great persistence, yet with the exhibition of great 
humility and respect, the same manuscripts to the favorable 
judgment of their respected and venerable teacher. At such 
times he generally at once suspects that there is some private 
influence being brought to bear ; and, provided the manuscripts 
are not decidedly inferior, and provided the reception of them 
into the number of approved manuscripts will not. interfere 
with his own private plans and interests in regard to the list 
of successful competitors, he often consents to look over the 
roll of compositions again, and concludes to agree that they are 
worthy. Sometimes a repeated recommendation of the high 
merits of certain manuscripts, contrary to the manifest judg- 
ment of the chief examiner, on the part of his subordinate, 
would but decide their fate unf^Yorably, as he might be indis- 




UNLAWFUL EXPEDIENTS USED BY COMPETITORS. 431 

posed to be a party to the success of any secret intrigue in re- 
gard to the probable pecuniary profits of which he was not 
sure of being a partaker. He might also feel that, for the sake 
of his reputation, he must at once oppose the success of any 
competitor who, as he believed, had interested one or more of 
his assistants in a conspiracy in his favor. He must show him- 
self just and impartial in his judgments. * 

Unjust an^ unlatcful Expedients to succeed^ used by 
Comjyetitors, 

It is a common practice for a student who resides in a coun- 
try place, and who has money to spare for the purpose, to hire 
a good scholar who lives in the city, and who has the reputa- 
tion of being a quick and accurate composer of literary essays 
and poems, to go into the proper examinations in his name and 
ID his behalf. Country students are not usually as talented 
and as skillful in literary compositions as are scholars bred in 
the city. By hiring a city man, if of good natural and acquired 
parts, the countryman is supposed to stand a better chance of 
success than though he trusted to his own abilities. This 
course is manifestly unfair and unjust to the other candidates 
of his district ; for by as much as this hiring a stranger, who 
is a better scholar than himself, increases his prospects of suc- 
cess, by so much docs it diminish the chance of the graduation 
of some one of the rest. They generally resist any such at- 
tempts to acquire a bachelorship by personal violence, if threats 
do not intimidate the hired man, or by revealing his true char- 
acter afler assembling in the examination hall. They prefer, 
how^ever, to prevent his actually getting into the arena devoted 
to the composition of their tasks, if possible. 

Those candidates for the first degree who for any reason are 
detained from meeting with the rest of their fellows, and com- 
peting before the district magistrate or the prefect, and yet are 
in season for competing at the regular examination before the 
literary chancellor, when they have money which they are will- 
ing to spend in this way, resort sometimes to the following ex- 
pedient in order to be able to enter that examination. Tliey 
go to the proper clerks connected with the yamuns of the dis- 
trict magistrate and the prefect, and bribe them to supply them 
with the necessary sets of rolls of ruled paper, on which they 




432 COMPETITIVB LITEBABY EXAMINATIONS. 

proceed to write essays and poems on the themes which have 
already been discussed at the examinations which he missed. 
These essays and poems are then handed to the clerks, who take 
them and mix them up with the essays and poems prepared by 
the other competitors in the usual manner and at the proper 
time, but which were not regarded very worthy. The clerks 
are also bribed to annex the names of those absentees on the 
list of those who really entered the examinations. In this way 
these real delinquents have their names recorded on the list of 
candidates recommended to the literary chancellor, and have 
also rolls of essays and poems, which may be referred to by the 
literary chancellor, should they, while competing in the exam- 
ination presided over by him, write essays and poems which 
rank high. It may be deemed desirable by him to compare 
the essays which they wrote at the other examinations, as re- 
gards style and handwriting, in order to detect attempts at de- 
ception. 

Sometimes, in case an undergraduate knows he can not be 
present for some reason at the lower examinations, he engages 
a personal literary friend to go into the arena and compete in 
his name, doing as well as he can ; or he hires some scholar to 
go in and write essays in his behalf. On his arrival, his friend 
or the hired scholar retires, allowing him to take his proper 
place, under his own name, at the future examinations. lie 
need not pursue the course described in the preceding para- 
graph, but simply ^^ exchange rolW*^ — that b, he bribes the 
clerk or clerks to furnish him the number of rolls of ruled pa- 
per required, and to lend the rolls which contain the essays and 
poems composed in his behalf by his friend or the hired scholar. 
He keeps these borrowed rolls of manuscript only long enough 
to copy oft' the compositions made by his proxy, which he hands 
into the possession of the clerk or clerks. The copies arc mix- 
ed up with the other manuscripts, and the original rolls are 
destroyed or put out of the way. Should he, at a future ex- 
amination, write approved essays and poems, and should the 
literary chancellor like to compare those made at the lower 
and previous examinations, the copies, which of course are in 
his own handwriting, would be produced for comparison. 

Sometimes two students wish to sit very near each other at 
the examinations, not for the purpose of mutually aiding each 




OTUER UNLAWFUL EXPEDIENTS TO SUCCEED. 433 

Other, but that one of them may bo of service to the other. In 
such cases, one is hired to aid the other because of his ability 
to compose with celerity and correctness. It is his object to 
compose the essays and poem for his employer to copy. The 
nearer they can sit to each other, the less probability will there 
bo of being detected and exposed in any attempts to pass 
manuscripts back and forth. For example, A and B wish to 
sit near each other, but they find that their scrolls of paper in- 
dicate widely distant seats. One is marked for the eleventh 
seat of the first row on the east side of the main passage-way 
in the centre of the hall, and the other is marked for the fourth 
seat of the fifteenth row on the west side of the passage-way. 
A tries to make an arrangement with some one whose seat is 
. near the appointed seat of his friend 13, so that he may use 
that seat instead of his own. At the same time, B tries to 
make arrangements to sit by his employer or friend A. If 
either can find any one who will accommodate him for friend- 
ship or for money, he exchanges his ticket for the ticket of the 
other ; for, as it has been observed above, should an " examina- 
tion of marks'' be made, the scroll must be found at the place 
where it is appointed to be, or it is summarily stamped. The 
men, in effect, simply change seats, the one using the scroll pre- 
pared for the other. It is said that sometimes comparatively 
a large sum of money is paid for the privilege of occupying 
some conveniently-located seat. The arrangement must be con- 
cluded, and the exchange of tickets corresponding to the rolls 
of ruled paper must bo made, before the names of the candi- 
dates are called over, and the men are obliged to take their 
places on the morning of the examination day. It would not bo 
|>ossibIe to make an arrangement subsequent to that time, as 
the com ]>et iters are required to take their seats as soon as they 
receive their rolls of ruled paper in exchange for their tickets. 

According to law, a man ought to compete only in the dis- 
trict to which he belongs; but oftentimes, in the case of two 
very populous districts adjoining each other, as at this city, 
the eastern part of the city belonging to one district and the 
western part belonging to another district, students manage 
to compete in two districts, all in order to increase the chance 
of success. If the examinations fall on the same day in both 
districts, a student can not, of course, be present at both. The 

V<»i. I.— T 




434 COMPETmVB LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

Course he takes is to have his patronymic, or family name, re- 
corded in the proper offices of the two districts, but with dif- 
ferent given or personal names, one of which is his true, and 
the other an assumed name. In case the examination &lls on 
the same day in both districts, he makes use of only one of his 
names, of course, going into the examination which he thinks 
affords the surest prospect of success, hiring some one to go 
into the other examination for him, or selling out the opportu- 
nity to the highest bidder, or allowing a personal friend to 
take advantage of the opening for his own benefit. 

Sometimes an enterprising man, a little before the time 
when an examination of candidates for the first degree is to 
commence, prepares a room or building near the arena, and in- 
vites a number of talented men to come there and hire oat 
their services to rich candidates who wish to obtain secret aid. 
The premises are called a " horse-shed*'^ or a " horse-stable^''* 
and the men who come there to write essays for their employ- 
ers are called " horses!'* Their employers are said to " ride 
horses!* The " horses** are necessarily men of superior gifts 
at literary composition, and are often graduates of the first or 
the second degree, who are needy, and willing to do an unjust 
and unlawful action for a pecuniary consideration. The head 
man of the horse-shed employs men to act the part of gobe- 
t weens, who go around secretly to the rich candidates and try 
and find out who are willing to pay liberally for literary help. 
These candidates are brought to the rendezvous for consulta- 
tion and decision in regard to price for the aid to be rendered 
and the particular "^or^cs" they are to ride. The man whose 
service is engaged then lays his plans, whether to go into the 
examination in person, or remain outside and prepare the es- 
say and the poem. He sometimes tries to get into the arena 
by hiring a student to stay out, taking his ticket, and assum- 
ing his name for the time being, or by findmg out a competi- 
tor who has his name recorded in two districts, and purchas- 
ing from hini the privilege of using his name in one. All this 
is contrary to law, and the guilty parties are liable to be pun- 
ished with severity in case of detection. The head man always 
receives a certain percentage, usually about ten per cent., on 
tlio sums agreed upon between the horses and their rider*. 
The horses, if detected, are sometimes />t/^ in the cangue for a 




485 

certain number of days, or, if graduates, they may bo degraded 
from their literary rank. Notwithstanding the risk, there are 
plenty who are willing to engage in the business provided the 
pay offered is ample. If the examining officer is very strict, 
the "horse" usually concludes to write his composition outside, 
and send it into the place of examination for his rider to copy. 
In accordance with established custom, the one who acted 
as gobetween between the rich candidate and his literary 
" horse," in case the former should succeed at the examina- 
tion, will expect to receive a certain percentage on the sum 
agreed upon as pay for the services which he negotiated, over 
and above what he received at the time of making the con- 
tract, if ho received any. If the sum is two hundred thousand 
cash, he would expect forty thousand cash as his share of the 
spoils, the usual proportion being ttcenty per centy unless some 
other percentage is fixed upon at the time of making the bar- 
gain. This is called ^^ turning-around^he-head cash^^ refer- 
ring to cash which is paid after some understood event has 
transpired, and which requires one to turn around, go back, 
and receive it. The custom of paying " turning-around-the- 
head cash" extends to many other subjects besides those which 
relate to literary matters. It is a kind of bonus or present 
given, in case some very desirable event takes place, to those 
who have acted the part of middle-men in negotiations relating 
to it. Sometimes these men who sell their services are called 
by other names than horses^ and their services are frequently 
engaged for examinations before the district magistrate, pre- 
fect, and the literary chancellor. It is always understood that 
if successful in obtaining a degree by the aid of another, the 
competitor must pay the one who was his horse ten times as 
much as he agreed to pay him whether successful or not. K 
he agrees to pay him one hundred taels whether ho succeeds 
or not, he is bound to pay one thousand taels in the event of 
his graduation by his help. The man gives his note of hand, 
with the signature of some relative or friend as security, to bo 
paid after the close of the examinations. The sum paid for 
aid at the first examination before the examiners, as district 
magistrate and prefect, is oftentimes quite small. The nearer 
the examination for which aid is purchased is to the last one 
before the literary chancellor, which is generally the decisive 




4(56 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXOIINATI0N8. 

one, the higher the sum demanded and promised. Sometimes 
a particular sum is fixed upon, provided the competitor's name 
should head the list before the lowest two examining officers 
at their last sessions, as such a person is almost sure of attain- 
ing the degree, in accordance with the established custom. 

In examinations of candidates before the imperial commis- 
sioners for the second degree, sometimes aid is only procured 
for the composition of the poetry, or for the third or fourth 
prose essay, the competitor himself having succeeded in pre- 
paring the other essays to his liking. Such help is usually 
hired of those who happen to occupy adjoining cells or apart- 
ments, and who have already finished their own tasks, and 
have time and strength to spare before the doors open and the 
session closes. Such a man generally is willing to sell his serv- 
ices cheaply, sometimes receiving not more than five or ten 
thousand cash for literary labor performed after his own com- 
positions are completed. It is reported to be seldom practica- 
ble for horses outside of the hall to prepare and send in essays 
and poems to their riders inside to copy. Strange stories, 
however, arc told of compositions made in very fine characters, 
and written on very thin paper, being smuggled into the hall 
by being incased in a coating of wax, and put into the water- 
buckets, which are turned into the troughs or reservoirs which 
connect with the inside of the hall. These are picked out of 
the water by accomplices who act as servants or watchmen 
inside, and conveyed to the owners, whose names or whose 
seats are known at once to those who understand the private 
marks on the surface of the wax balls. Of course, the marks 
being unintelligible to the uninitiated, if these balls should hap- 
pen to fall into the hands of those officers or servants who 
are not in the secret, the circumstance would not implicate 
any assistant, and could not be used as proof against any par- 
ticular competitor. He would only lose the benefit ho might 
have derived from the use of the contents of his ball. 

It is aliso related that outside accomplices formerly used to 
contrive to get manuscript essays and poems conveyed to their 
friends inside the arena by using underground communications, 
and by sliding the manuscripts up the hollow legs of tables or 
hollow posts, which connected with a cellar or tunnel, the cel- 
lar or tunnel, of course, connecting with some adjacent build- 




A DISGRACEFUL EXPEDIENT TO SUCCEED. 437 

ing outside the promises. It wns necessary in such cofcr that 
some person inside the hall should be on the look-out for the 
appearance of the manuscijpt, who would convey it to the 
competitor for whom it was designed. This expedient only 
avoided the danger and difficulty of employing a person con- 
nected with the hall to carry the manuscript through the door 
and deliver it to the owner who is inside, which, when the ex- 
amining officer is not strict, is an easy thing to do. Bribery 
must be resorted to in every case. 

It sometimes occurs that the competitor at the first and sec- 
ond examinations before the district magistrate and the pre- 
fect manages to slip undetected or unchallenged out of the 
premises afler his name has been called, and after he has ob- 
tained his roll of ruled paper in exchange for his ticket obtain- 
ed from the ])roper clerk, but before the doors are shut and 
Healed, usually with the connivance of the door-keeper. In 
such a case, he goes to a convenient place, and prepares his es- 
says and poem on the themes given out, either alone or with 
the help of friends, using all the helps he pleases to use. The 
themes are often made known to accomplices or friends out- 
side by servants or literary assistants connected with the prem- 
ises, who write them on a piece of tile, or on a piece of paper 
tied to a stone, which is then thrown over the outside wall at 
a particular place, or the paper is thrust through a crevice in 
an outside door or a hole in the wall. By preconcerted ar- 
rangement, the themes are taken by a confederate and distrib- 
uted to those who have bribed the clerks to procure them. 
Or sometimes the roll of paper is taken outside after the doors 
are sealed and locked, the competitor to whom it belongs re- 
niaining inside, and an accomplice writes the essays and poems, 
and then delivers the roll, after the doors have been opened 
and a part of the competitors have come out, to the proper 
clerk or underling, who takes it inside the hall, and hands it, as 
lliough prepared in the hall, to the proper literary assistant of 
I lie examiner, who deposits it among other unexamined manu- 
scripts, where it is found in due time by the chief. The par- 
ticul.ar kind of deception now described is said to be very un- 
])opular and disgraceful, even the candidates being the judges, 
tliough it is occasionally practiced when detection is not prob- 
able by those who have money to spare for bribing the serv- 




43b COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONS. 

ants and assistants connected with the premises where the ses- 
sions are hehd. 

Frequent allasion has been made to the assistants, clerks, 
and servants, who allow themselves to be bribed to aid the 
competitors by carrying in to them, to copy, sheets of manu- 
scripts received from outside accomplices, or scrolls already 
written out on the appointed roll of ruled paper, or by commu- 
nicating information in regard to the themes given out by the 
examiner. There is so much of this kind of deception done 
that there is a regular scale of charges for services in ordinary 
cases rendered to competitors by these men. For example, 
the regular bribe for carrying in a paper containing essays and 
poems written outside for a candidate within, at the first ex- 
amination before the district magistrate, is said to be four 
hundred cash ; at the second examination, eight hundred cash ; 
at the third, one thousand six hundred cash ; and at the fifth, 
six thousand four hundred, doubling the rate at each higher 
session. Sometimes the magistrate suspects that deception 
is being carried on in regard to certain persons or a certain 
class of competitors. He therefore requires them to sit in a 
more retired part of the premises, or nearer him. In such cases 
the difficulty of conveying secret dispatches to them is great- 
ly increased. The assistant or clerk who conveys manuscripts 
to such students expects to receive at least twice as much as 
though they occupied the seats that would naturally fall to 
their lot. For example : in another case, where he would ex- 
pect to receive for the sixth session only twelve thousand eight 
hundred cash for services, he would now demand twenty-five 
thousand six hundred cash, which the person would be re- 
quired, by the rules of honor in force here, to pay him with 
promptness, should the manuscript reach him safely and with- 
out detection. When the standard of the amount of the bribe 
for the first examination before any examiner becomes fixed or 
settled upon for any given year, the charge for any subsequent 
examination can be readily figured up by doubling that sum 
for each intervening examination until the number in question 
is reached. Of course, extraordinary ser>Mces are paid for at 
extraordinary prices, such as are agreed upon : for these there 
is no general rule or regular sum. 

It must be evident that the lists of successful candidates at 




MILITARY COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. 439 

examiDatioDfl for the first and the second literary degree fur- 
nish no positive proof that the mdividuals concerned succeed. 
ed by their own merit. 

MUUary Competitive Examinations, 

There are regular competitory examinations of candidates 
for military honors in China, conducted much after the same 
manner as the examinations for literary rank are conducted. 
Competitors for the first military degree, a military bachelor- 
ship, are examined by the same oflicials as are literary compet- 
itors, but candidates for the second military degree are exam- 
ined by the provincial governor instead of special commission- 
ers from Peking. 

It seems strange to those who are accustomed to Western 
ideas that common civil officers, who know nothing about the 
practice of arms, should be deemed entirely competent in China 
to superintend military examinations, and decide in regard to 
the relative merits and attainments of the competitors. It 
seems also very strange that in a land where the use of gun- 
powder has been known for centuries, no skill in the employ- 
ment of guns and cannons should be required in candidates for 
military rank. Skill in archery and great [)hysical strength are 
deemed of more importance than any other attainment relating 
to war. 

Those who desire to compete for the first military degree 
are required to present themselves before the district magis- 
trate of the district where they properly belong at the time he 
appoints. They must first have their names entered on the 
list of competitors by the clerk of a certain office connected 
with his yamun, in order to which they are required to furnish 
the clerk a document stating various particulars relating to 
himself, which must be certified to by some one of the class of 
literary graduates of the first degree who are appointetl to 
net as "securities" for candidates for the first literary degree. 
Without this security to their document their names would not 
be recorded on the list of candidates, and they would not be 
allowed to enter the arena. 

At the first examination before the district magistrate they 
are exercised in the practice of archery, standing: they are ex- 
amined in regard to their proficiency in shooting at a mark, 




440 COUFBTrnVE LITERABY EXAHINATI0N8. 




MiUTAST CAKDIDATU OOMPETING WITO TBS UUMT AMD AUMtW. 

each one shooting three arrows. At the second examination 
before this official they are exercised in the practice of archery 
on horseback. In hke manner they are required to shoot three 
arrows at a mark, but while the horse is running. At the third 
examination they are all exercised with large swords, and with 
heavy stones, and with stiff bows. There are three kinds of 
swords which they are required to brandish ; one, it is said, 
weighs 1 00 pounds, the second 1 20 pounds, and the other 1 80 
pounds. The stones arc also of three different sizes ; one weighs 
100 pounds, another 120 pounds, and the other 100 pounds. 
These they are required to handle according to a certain rule. 
The bows they are exercised in bending are also of three dif- 
ferent degrees of stiffness. It requires the expenditure of 100 
pounds of strength to bend the smallest, 120 pounds of strength 
to bend the second size, and 160 pounds of strength to bend the 
third size. It is probable that, in fact, the strength necessary 
to bend the bows, to handle the stones, and to brandish the 
swords, is considerably less than is indicated by the above fig- 
ures, illustrating the difference between theory and practice, or 




METHOD OP CONDUCTINO MILITARY EXAMINATIONS. 441 

between law and custom. No archery is exacted at the third 
session, but simply bending the bows, and mancBuvring and 
practicing with the swords and stones, each man by himself 
and each man for himself. 

The names of the competitors who do not fail entirely, or 
come below the lowest standard of merit allowable, or violate 
some of the well understood rules of the examination, are pa- 
raded in public on large sheets of paper, according to their rel- 
ative attainments and worth, soon afler the close of each ses- 
sion. The one who heads the list at the end of the third ex- 
amination it is customary for the literary chancellor to gradu- 
ate. A list of competitors is made out by the district magis- 
trate at the close of his sessions for the literary chancellor to 
examine. 

At the proper time, these military champions meet together 
at the rendezvous appointed by the prefect for the candidates 
of the different districts in his prefecture, where they pass 
through three sessions of examinations before him, in much the 
same order, and with the same kind of weapons or instruments, 
as they have already passed through before their respective 
district magistrates. In like manner, the prefect causes a list 
to be made out of the candidates which have been examined 
before him, which he sends up to the literary chancellor. The 
head man on the list at the third examination before the pre- 
fect is also sure of graduation provided he does only tolerably 
well before the chancellor. 

Tlie literary chancellor has also three sessions before him, 
which are usually held at his yamun, or he may have them ap- 
pointed on the parade-ground south of the city, as he pleases, 
llie mode he employs to ascertain the merit of the candidates 
is similar to the course pursued by the two lower examiners. 
At the close of the third session, a list of those who are re- 
garded as the most proficient and dexterous, and therefore the 
most worthy, is prepared. These competitors are required to 
come into the yamun for a fourth exercise of a literary kind. 
They are required to copy from memory a certain short mili- 
tary treatise. The literary chancellor can graduate as many 
men of the first military degree for each prefecture as he can 
jH^raduate of the first literary degree. The military bachelors, 
with artificial fiowers in their caps and with silk scarfs around 

T2 




442 COMPETITIVE LITERARY EXAMINATIONa . 

tbeir shoulder8,4>aradc the streets, with banners and with a 
band of music, in very much the same manner as do the liter- 
ary bachelors after their graduation. A noticeable difference 
in the dress of the two classes is that the former* always have 
round-toed boots, while the latter have square-toed boots. 
They are permitted to wear the button denoting their rank 
on their caps, but they have no pay and no employment as 
soldiers unless they enter the ranks of the soldiers. In such 
a case they have rations, and have the advantage over the 
common soldier of being able to compete for military employ- 
ment as officers. Few of the graduates, however, enter the 
ranks as common soldiers. 

The examination for the second degree, or master of arts, of 
the military bachelors of all the province, takes place at the 
provincial capital, under the supervision of the provincial gov- 
ernor as chief. He usually has four sessions. The first con- 
sists of shooting at a target with three arrows while standing 
on the ground. The second consists of shooting at a target 
with the same number of arrows from horseback while the 
horse is running. The third consists of archery on horseback. 
The target is three-sided, placed on the ground, and is called 
"/A€ earth'^ or the ^^eartldy haUP It is made out of leather, 
and measures about a foot across each of its sides. The fourth 
consists of an exercise with the three large swords, the three 
large stones, and the three large bows, much as in the lower 
examinations before they attained their bachelorships. 

The number of successful competitors for the second mili- 
tary degree for all the province is only about sixty. These 
men engage with great show and pomp, having banners and 
music, in the custom of calling upon their friends, to honor 
them or to receive their congratulations, after they have paid 
their respects to the higher mandarins, whom law or custom 
makes it their duty to call upon soon after they have obtained 
their degree. 

There is doubtless considerable bribery employed by the 
richer class of these military candidates in order to secure a 
degree, and considerable favor shown at times by the examin- 
ers, but not nearly as much as in the case of literary competi- 
tors. The trials are more openly conducted than are the tri- 
als for literary degrees, and success depends very much on 




MILITARY LL.D.'S BECOME MILITARY OFFICERa 448 

personal Bkill and physical strength, which arc tangible and 
visible in their developments at the examinations. There is 
not much room for successful bribery unless there be also a 
tolerable degree of attainment in the nse of the weapons em- 
ployed. 

Those in the different provinces who have attained to the 
second military degree must go to Peking in order to compete 
for the third degree. The successful competitors there are al- 
ways sure of finding immediate employment in the army or 
navy somewhere in the empire. The unsuccessful competitors, 
on their return to their own provinces, may, if they please, con- 
nect thdraselves with the body-guard of the provincial govern- 
or, and become a kind of personal attendants upon him. They 
have no regular salary while in this position. After following 
the governor for three years, they are entitled, according to 
law, to employment by the government as military officers of 
the rank and title of a chiliarch or colonel. In fact, however, 
it is affirmed, generally only those who are special favorites of 
the governor, or who have money to spend in the shape of 
presents alias bribes, succeed, even after the expiration of three 
years' attendance upon him, in becoming colonels. Those who 
use money enough in the proper, or, rather, improper way, 
need not wait three years before they are appointed to a 
command. 




4M CHINESE ANECDOTES. 



CHAPTER XVm. 

CHINESE ANECDOTES. 
Precocious Youth. — Indigent Students, — Filial and Dutiful Children. 

Precocious Youth. 

Every nation delights in recording the wise sayings and the 
remarkable deeds of its precocious youth. This kind of read- 
ing, if it does not afford much instruction to the learned and 
the adult, at least furnishes amusement for them. Who does 
not enjoy an apt saying or a striking anecdote, especially when 
the early age or some other condition of its subject renders it 
entirely unexpected ? 

The Chinese are not exceptions to the truth of these remarks. 
They have wonderful stories to relate about children in olden 
times, who were wise and gifled above their years. A few of 
these stories are subjoined. Perhaps it should be first st.^ited 
that it is sometimes impossible, and very often exceedingly dif- 
ficult, to render from the Chinese into English a smart saying 
in such a manner as to do it justice, on account of the jo/ay on 
the sound or the meaning of the words in the original. Some 
one has said, in substance, that " a pun can no more be trans- 
lated than it can be engraved." 

During the Northern Sung dynasty, which began about 421, 
and ended 479 A.D., there lived a little boy whose name was 
Noo. At an early age he was noted for the versatility of his 
talents and the tenacity of his memory. In studying a book, 
it is said he needed only to read it over once and then he could 
repeat it. One day, when he was four years old, a guest re- 
marked in the hearing of the lad that "Confucius had no elder 
brother." Noo instantly replied, in the language of the Classic, 
" He took his elder brother's daughter and gave her away in 
marriage," thus proving that Confucius had an elder brother. 
The whole company greatly wondered at this extraordinary 
reply. 

In the same dynasty lived a little boy whose name was 




REMARKABLE STORIES OP CHILDREN. 445 

Kuang. One day, while playing with a company of children, 
i)nc of them happened to fall into a large earthen jar full of 
water. All of the other boys except Kuang were too much 
frightened to render any assistance, and ran away. He, taking 
a stone, broke the jar, and saved his playmate's life by letting 
the water escape. Every one who heard the circumstances 
admired the boy's uncommon wisdom and presence of mind. 

In the same dynasty there lived another bright lad, whoso 
name was Yenfoh. While quite small, ho was once playing 
ball with some juvenile companions. The ball lodging in the 
deep cavity of a post, all gave it up as lost except Yenfoh. Ho 
took water, and, }>ouring it into the hole in the post, the ball 
lloated to the surface. 

During the after Han dynasty, between 221 and 265 A.D., at 
the age of seven years, the boy I*a perfectly understood " Spring 
and Autumn," one of the profound text-books studied by the 
Chinese, being one of the " Five Classics." On proceeding to 
study the remaining Classics, his father and mother endeavored 
to dissuade him, saying you are only a little boy ; you are not 
able to study them. He answered, " Yes, I can study them, 
and have leisure too." He* had such extraordinary abilities 
that ho was often called Tsang-tsze, after one of the most re- 
nowned of the seventy-two disciples of Confucius. 

In the time of the same dynasty lived a man named Wan, 
who at an early age was distinguished for his ready wit. When 
lie was only seven years old, his grandfather was prefect in the 
country of Wei. An eclipse of the sun occurring, the prefect 
informed the emperor of the fact. The queen dowager in- 
quired how much of the sun was eclipsed. The prefect did 
not know what to answer, when his little grandson, standing 
by his side, suggested to him, " Why not say the part of the 
sun not eclipsed is as large as the moon in the first of the 
month?" The old man returned the indefinite reply thus sug- 
gested, greatly surprised, and wondering at the quick under- 
standing and ready expression of his little grandson. 

In the kingdom of Wei, during the third century, lived two 
intimate friends,'' whose ancestral names were Yang and Kung. 
Kung is the first character of the expression in the Chinese lan- 
guage for p€aco<*k^ and Yang is the first of the two characters 
which denote the fruit ctrbtUtiS. One day Mr. Kung called to 




446 CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

see Mr. Yang, but not finding him at home, called his little boy 
Sew, a very bright and intelligent lad of nine years, to come 
and talk with him. In the room were some of the first arbu- 
tus of the season, provided for the entertainment of company. 
Mr. Kung, wishing to jest with the boy on his name, pointing 
to the arbutus, playfully remarked, ^^I suppose this is a family 
fruit, a relative of yours ?" Sew immediately rejoined, " I nev- 
er before heard that the peacock was a member of your fam- 
ily!" 

In the same country lived a little boy whose name was Lin. 
One day a friend of his fiUher came to the door of his house, 
and inquired of Lin, " Is Pehtsin (mentioning the given name 
of his father) at home ?" The lad did not answer, nor did he 
make the customary bow of respect. The man, surprised, 
said, "Why do you not make a bow to me?" Lin replied, 
" I ought, indeed, to make a bow to you ; but if you speak to 
me about my father, using his given name, for what reason 
should I be polite to you ?" According to the rules of Chi- 
nese etiquette, using the given name of one's father in address- 
ing his son indicates a lack of good-breeding. He should be 
referred to as the Distinguished Great Man, or the Venerable 
Gentleman, etc. The little boy meant, if you are not polite in 
speaking to me of my father, why should I be polite in speak- 
ing to you or in recognizing you ? You are yourself impolite, 
why insist on my being polite ? 

During the Ming dynasty, which began 13G8 and ended 
1643 A.D., lived the lad Tapin, who was a youth of uncono- 
mon intelligence and propriety. Having studied the Four 
Books and the Five Classics only once, it is affirmed, he did 
not forget them. When eight years old, he called on a liter- 
ary man of high rank, and conducted himself with the self-|>os- 
session and propriety of an elderly gentleman. His host, point- 
ing to a chair as the subject of an impromptu verse, in Chinese 
style giving out the first line, said, " With a cushion made of 
tiger's skin to cover the student's chair." Tapin, being ex- 
pected to pronounce the second line, all the words of which 
were to have certain correspondence to the words found in the 
first line, immediately answered, ** With a pencil made of rab- 
bits' hair to write the graduate's tablet." The gentleman 
struck the table before him in delight, and rewarded the boy. 




STORY OF WANG YOOCHING. 447 

At the age of thirteen he graduated Master of Arts the sec- 
ond in the list. At an examination in the capital for Doctor 
of Laws, during the reign of Ching-tik, his name was second 
among the successful competitors. In a trial before the em- 
peror the same year, ho came out number third, and became 
a member of the Ilan Lin, the imperial college, at a very early 
age. 

During the Southern Sung dynasty (960-1280 A.D.), the 
famous commentator on the Chinese Classics, Churutze, when 
only eight years old, was master of the doctrines of the treat- 
ise on Filial Piety. He wrote on the cover, using eight char- 
acters, " He who does not comply with this is not a perfect 
man." While engaged with other boys in juvenile plays, he 
was accustomed to take sand, and, having arranged it in lines 
on the ground, like the eight diagrams invented by Fuh Hi 
and now commonly used in divination, he would then sit down 
and gaze at them in perfect silence, as though absorbed in 
study. 

In the time of the Northern Sung dynasty lived Wang Yoo- 
ching, who at the age of seven years could compose literary 
essays with correctness. A certain assistant prefect, who aft- 
erward became prime minister, hearing that the lad^s father 
was a miller, and desirous of trying his genius, one day asked 
him to pronounce an impromptu verse about the mill. He 
pronounced without hesitation four lines, which not only w*ere 
admirable specimens of Chinese poetry, but also indicated the 
lad's high ambition. The assistant prefect was so delighted 
that he took the boy home, and allowed him to study with his 
own children. On a certain day the prefect invited his assist- 
ant to dinner. While at dinner he gave out, as the first line 
of an impromptu stanza, the sentence, ^^ The parrot, though it 
talks, can not compare with the phcenix." None of the guests 
were able properly to match it with a line. On returning 
home the assistant prefect inscribed it on a flower-vase. Yoo- 
ching, happening to see it, immediately wrote underneath, 
*^The spider, though skillful, can not compare with the silk- 
worm." The assistant prefect was greatly delighted, and 
caused the lad to dress himself in clothing made after the 
fashion worn by adults, and afterward addressed him as liis 
"little friend." 




448 CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

Indigent Students, 
The following anecdotes are perhaps as fair specimens as 
any which can be selected from the history of this people, to 
show what examples are held up for the imitation and encour- 
agement of the student in his endeavors to pursue study un- 
der nnpropitious circumstances. It is worthy of notice that 
the heroes of these stories almost always succeeded in their 
efforts to acquire literary fame and official employment. 

lie fastened his hair by a cord to the top of the house vchen 
he studied. In the feudal state of T^su, during the Chan dy- 
nasty, several hundred years before Christ, Sun King was in 
the habit of shutting himself up in his house when he studied, 
m order to prevent his mind from being diverted from his 
books. For the purpose of keeping awake when he was 
drowsy, he tied one end of a cord to the hair of his head, and 
tastoneil the other end to a beam in the top of his house. 
Whenever he appeared in the streets, the people were accus- 
tomed to call out as with one accord, "77i6 teacher tcho shuts 
hininilfup (to study) is coming^ 

lit tntctd the characters on the sand ^cith a reed. During 
the Southern Sunij dynasty, Ngan Yangsui, when only four 
years old, lost his father. His mother, vowing never to marry 
ag:\in, taught her son how to read ; but the family were so 
]HH>r as to bo unable to procure paper and pencils, and she 
therefore wrote the characters on the sand with a reed, and 
thus instructed him. The lad was quicker at learning than 
lads usually are. By reading any thing only once he could 
inmuHliately repeat it. After he arrived at manhood he ob- 
tained the third degree. In three examinations at the capital 
he came otV with the very highest honors, and became a mem- 
ber of the Han Lin college. 

Jlv afuditd hg the light reflected from snoxc. During the 
Sung dynasty. Sun Kang's family was poor and destitute of 
oil. In the winter evenings he was accustomed to study by 
the liijjht reflected from snow. When young, he was regarded 
as of correct principles, and would not associate with men of 
unworthy habits. Afterward he became an officer of the high 
rank of imperial censor. 

// studied by the light of a bagfuU of gloio-tcortns. In the 




GRINDING THE PESTLE DOWN TO MAKE A NEEDLE. 449 

dynasty of Tain, which began about 265, and ended 419 A.D., 
Cho Yin, while only a boy, was very sedate and courteous, as 
well as a diligent student. In consequence of the poverty of 
his family he was not able always to obtain oil ; so, during the 
summer months, ho collected a large number of glow-worms 
in a white gauze bag, and by their light was able to pursue his 
studies in the evening, as it were lengthening out the day. 
lie afterward became an officer of a very high rank, and had 
the title of president of one of the six boards. 

He did not open his family letters. In the Simg dynasty, 
IIu Yuen, before ho had attained his first degree at the liter- 
ary examinations, in company with two friends, went to the 
celebrated mountain of Tai to pursue his studies. He applied 
liimself with great diligence, and ate very poor food. It is 
said he did not sleep during the night, nor for ten years did he 
return home. As soon as he saw the two words " peace and 
liealtli," which were written on the outside of his letters from 
home, he would throw them aside. He did not open them 
and road them, lest his attention should be diverted from his 
books. 

She cut the %ceh of cloth in order to incite' him to study. 
During the Chau dynasty (B.C. 1122-255), Mencius, at the ago 
of throe years, lost his father. His mother, wliose name was 
Sin, was a woman of distinguished worth and virtue. Men- 
cius went to school, but soon threw aside his books and re- 
turned homo. His mother was very much incensed at this 
course, and taking a knife, cut the web of cloth she was weav- 
ing, saying, "My son, your desisting from your studies is like 
my cutting this web." Mencius, trembling with apprehension, 
returned to school, and studied with diligence ; nor did he in- 
termit his literary pursuits until ho became a worthy^ next in 
rank to the sage Confucius. 

She \cas grinding the pestle down to make a needle. In the 
lime of the Tang dynasty (620-900 A.D.),Lei Peh, while yet 
young, and before he had completed his studies, left scliool 
and started for home. On the road he saw an old woman en- 
gaged in grinding away an iron pestle. Peh inquired why 
f'he was thus grinding the pestle ? She answered, " ftrant to 
make a needle,^'* He was surprised at lier words, and, influ- 
enced by them, rctunied to school, and studieil with most as- 




450 CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

siduous application. He finally became a member of the Im- 
perial college at the capital. 

He concealed fire to light his lamp. Probably between 47^ 
501 A.D. lived T'su Yung, who, when he was only eight years 
old, was so fond of study that liis parents were afraid he 
would impair his eyes by his diligence. They therefore for- 
bade him the use of books, but ho would not obey them. CkMh 
stantly he hid fire until his parents had retired to rest, when 
lie would light his lamp and study. He took his clothes and 
the coverlet of his bed, and hung them up over the window of 
his room, lest the light, escaping through it, should be seen by 
some one of the family, in this way his name became very 
widely celebrated as a scholar. At home and abroad the peo- 
ple called him " t/ie little sage.^'* At the age of twelve he be- 
came a high officer of government, and was afterward pro- 
moted to the Superintendency of the Offering of Wine. 

His curtains retained the traces of the smoke of his lamp. 
In the Sung dynasty, Fan Shun Jin day and night was diligent 
in study. He was in the habit of placing his lamp within the 
curtains of his bed, and thus study until past midnight. Aft- 
erward he became a very distinguished officer. His wife pre- 
served the curtain, which at the top was sooted over as black 
as ink. Occasionally she would bring it forth, and show ii to 
her children and grandchildren, saying, ^^ Your father ami 
grandfather^ ichen he teas a bog, was verg studious. Here art 
the marks of the smoke of his lamp,'*^ 

He used a round stick oftcood as a pilloic to prevent deep 
sleep. During the Sung dynasty, Sie Ma Wan, when a boy, 
whether he was moving about or at rest, in all his conduct 
was dignified and decorous, like a perfect old gentleman. At 
seven years of age he heard an explanation of the volume 
called " Spring and Autumn." He was very much pleased, 
and, having returned home, conversed with the members of 
his family in such a manner as to show that he understood its 
])rinciples. He was accustomed to use a round block of wood 
for a pillow. When he became sleepy and fell into a doze, 
this pillow would roll a little and awaken him. Once awak- 
ened, he would apply himself to his studies again with vigor. 
He finally became an object of worship, his tablet being placed 
in the temple of Confucius. 




STOBY OP KWANG HUKG. 461 

lie teas stimulcUed by the pomp of a magistrate to make 
the study of hooks his callijig. In the time of the Sung dy- 
nasty lived Chang Yih. It so happened that when he was 
young his parents were poor, and he was not even taught to 
read. He was obliged to hire himself out to work for otliers. 
One day ho suddenly heard the heralds of the district magis- 
trate proclaiming his approach, and clearing the road for him 
to pass. Ilis mind was greatly excited and interested, and he 
asked, '^ How did this man arrive at such a place of dignity 
and honor ?" " By the study of books," was the answer. 
From this time he put forth all his energies in the acquisition 
of knowledge. He afterward received instruction from the 
famous commentator Ching. He became his disciple, and sub- 
sequently taught and handed down the deep and abstruse 
doctrines of his master. Ching used to speak to others in this 
manner : " In my old age I have begotten two children" — re- 
ferring to his disciple Yih and his own son I-Teen. 

lie lived on vegetables^ and on gruel made of coarse rice. 
In the same dynasty, Fan Chung Yen, when a young man, 
lodged with a friend in a Buddhistic monastery, situated on 
the Long White Mountains. Tliey pursued their studies to- 
gether. They made congee, or a thick kind of gruel, out of 
two measures of coarse rice or millet, or (as some explain the 
original) out of unshclled rice, by boiling it in water, after- 
ward pouring it into a vessel, where they let it stand over 
night. By morning it had congealed. They then cut it with 
a knife into four pieces. Moming and night they ate two 
pieces. They took ten or more of a certain vegetable, resem- 
bling onions or chives, and, having cooked them, ate them. 
They lived in this way for three years. Afterward Chung 
Yen became a graduate of the third degree at the examina- 
tions, and was promoted to the rank of President of the Board 
of War. After death he had an honorary title conferred on 
him. 

He chiseled a hole in the partition to get the light through. 
In the Han dynasty, which began about 205 B.C., and ended 
about 25 A.D., lived Kwang Hung, who was very indigent. 
Though very fond of books, he was destitute of the means 
of purchasing oil. His neighbor in the adjoining house had 
candles, but the light could not penetrate through the wall. 




452 CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

Huug therefore made a bole in it, in order to procure rajs 
of light by which ho could prosecute bis studies. In the dty 
a wealthy man, whose surname was Great, had a large num- 
ber of books. Hung was anxious to work for him, though 
not for the purpose of receiving wages ; he only desired the 
I)rivilege of reading the rich man's books as his pay. Mr. 
Great was so much interested in the proposal and in the man 
that he gave him some of his books as his wages. Hang be- 
came a very learned man, and finally obtained the office of 
prime minister. 

lie cast an iron inh^lab as an index of his resolution. 
During the Sung dynasty lived a literary man named Sang 
Wi Hang, who was very ugly looking, being deformed. His 
body was remarkably short, and his face very long. He would 
oilen look in a mirror, and, wondering at his odd appearance, 
say, " A man seven feet liigh would not have a face one foot 
long." His essays were frequently selected as worthy of pro- 
curing him the third degree at the examinations; but when 
the judges knew his name they erased it from the list, becinse 
the character for it, which meant "mulberry," was of the same 
sound as the character for *' funeral." Some friends of Wi 
Hang advised him to turn his attention to some other pursuit, 
but he caused an ink-slab to be made of iron, and, showing it 
to them, said, " When by grinding my ink I have made a hole 
through this ink-slab, then I will change my calling." He aft- 
erward graduated at the head of the class which obtained the 
third degree, or Doctor of Laws. 

lilial and dutiful Children, 

The Chinese have a favorite proverb th.it " of the handre<l 
virtues, filial duty is the chief." There is, perhaps, no maxim 
inorc early and more carefully instilled into the minds of the 
youth of both sexes among this people than that of implicit 
obodicnoo to parental authority. To illustrate the nature and 
to inculcate the importance of this virtue or duty, as well as 
to indicate the rewards which attend its performance, seems 
to bo the object of a small book called "Twenty-fonr Exam- 
])los of Filial Piety." It is published with coarse wood-cuts, 
twenty-four in number, each story being illustrated by a pic- 
ture of its hero engaged in the act commemorated. Some eiii- 




HEAVEN MOVED BY THE FILIAL LOVE OF YU SHUN. 453 

tioiis, besides tho pictures, have a piece of poetry relating to 
the incident, giving other particulars, and making what the 
Chinese deem suitable reflections. The incidents related in 
this little volume have probably influenced in no small degree 
the minds of the Chinese youth. Teaching by historical ex- 
ample is always interesting ahd impressive, and this book il- 
lustrates, by examples drawn from ancient Chinese history, the 
meaning of the popular maxim above quoted ; for, incredible 
as it may appear, the Chinese generally regard the examples 
given in this book as real facts, as actual occurrences. They 
are loth to admit that there may have been an exaggeration 
or misunderstanding of the truth. Are not the incidents re- 
lated to be found in the history of China ? and, if recordetl in 
the history of the nation, they must be true! 

A translation of some of these notable examples of filial de- 
votion will be given, with occasional remarks or explanations. 
Different editions, while agreeing in the main, have various dis- 
crepancies in the narration of particulars about these ancient 
worthies. Where sucb variations occur, the edition which 
seemed to give the best story has been followed. 

JJie filial devotion which moved Heaven, Yu Shun, the 
son of Ku Lau, had a very filial disposition. His father was 
stupid, his mother depraved, and his younger brother proud. 
Shun cultivated the Leih hills. He had elephants to plow for 
him, and birds to weed for him. In such a manner did liis 
filial devotion influence heaven ! The Emperor Yaou heard 
of him, and sent nine of his sons to servo him, and gave liim 
two of his daughters in marriage, and finally resigned the 
throne to him. 

These cTents, according to Chinese chronology, transpired more than 2200 
years before Christ. It is elsewhere stated more fully that Shan sufTerc^^l 
much from tho enmity of his younger brother, and from the harshness of his 
IMircnts. His father commanded him once to go down into a well, and then 
his brother threw large stones down. At another time a grnnnry was set on 
fire when he was in it. But he encaped without injury from his many perils. 
Ho labored with all his ability either on the farm, or in fishing, or in bum* 
iog earthenware. Ho continued to rererenco and obey his parents, though 
they did not love him. At length, assured of the rectitude of his conduct, 
ho invoked Heaven with tears. Heaven was moved by his sincerity. Tho 
elephants and the birds roluntccred their 8or>'ices, tho former in rooting up 
the ground with their proboaccs, and the latter in exterminating the weedn 
with their bills. II10 emperor having learned his ability to govern his 




454 CHINESE AKECDOTES. 

household by means of two danghtera lent to be his wires, as well as by the 
concurring testimony of nine sons sent to be his senrants, hence infened his 
ability to govern the nation. Accordingly, he resigned the emfure to hia 
rather than to any of his own children. The example of Shan in obeyiai; 
his parents is declared ** worthy of being handed down to poateritj throagh 
myriads of ages.** 

She bit her finger and it pained his heart. Daring the 
Chau dynasty, Tsang Tsan served his mother very obediently. 
He often went to the hills to get wood. Once, when thos j^ 
sent, some guests came to his house, and his mother knew not 
what to do. She was expecting Tsan ; but he not arriving, 
she bit her finger. Suddenly his heart was pained, and, taking 
the wood on his back, he returned home. Kneeling down be- 
fore his mother, he inquired the reason of her perplexity. She 
answered, " Suddenly some guests came, and I bit my finger 
to arouse you." 

According to Chinese etiquette, it is improper for a female to receire male 
guests, and wait u])on them herself. In this case the son, whose place it was 
to meet and entertain company, was absent, and his mother induced him to 
return home by gnawing her finger. The idea is, that he was so filial, and 
loved his mother with such tender devotion, that he sympathized with her 
grief of mind, the pain in her finger being felt in his heart. The hearts of 
mother and son are mutually affected, one influencing the other in the same 
manner as the amber draws the small strands, and the loadstone attracts the 
slender needle. From the remotest period sages have been able to contrt'l 
their dispositions, and-in the deepest silence have revolved their actions as in 
a breath. The moving influence that such minds have on each other the 
generality of men can not understand. The devotedness with which they 
sen'c their parent**, and the respect with which they cherish them, who can 
comprehend? Behold how perfect a medium between mother and child i* 
filial piety. This youth afterward became one of the most illustrious of the 
disciples of Confucius, and author of one of the *^ Four Boolu" studied br 
Chinese pupils. 

lie furnished his jxtrejits tcith deer's milk. During the 
Chau dynasty there was a man named Yen, whose disposition 
was very filial. His father and mother were old, and troubled 
with sore eyes. They desired to obtain some deer's milk to 
use. Yen clothed himself in the skin of a deer, and, going far 
away into the mountains, entered into the herd of deer and 
obtained some milk, which he gave his parents. The hunters 
saw him in disguise, and desired to shoot him with their ar- 
rows. But Yen explained the circumstances of the case, and 
thus escaped. 




A FEELING INSTANCE OF FILIAL PIETY. 455 

This narratire is accompanied by m cut representing Yen with a fawn*9 
skin on his back, in the act of disclosing his character, and explaining his ob- 
ject to a couple of hunters. It would seem that ho endeavored to imitate 
on ail-fours the appearance of a fawn. How fortunate that the hunters did 
not shoot the supposed deer with their deadly arrof^l for, had that mourn- 
ful event occurred, his aged parents would not only hare failed to obtain tho 
milk with which they hoped to euro their sore eyes, but posterity would also 
have been deprived of the wholesome influence of this impressive example 
of filial afTcctiun. It is to be deeply regretted that no account is given in 
the records of history of the effect of deer's milk in this case of sore eyes. 
Still, this omission ought not to detract from the praise due to Yen, for he 
performed his part most devotedly and most succctetfully. Though over two 
thousand years have elapsed since these events occurred, one with a lively 
fancy can imagine how the faint echo of the fawn-like cry, } etcr, »t&, rever- 
berated in the deep forest ! for it is affirmed that the hero closely imitated 
the cry of the fawns while searching for the tracks of tho deer. 

He put the oranges in his bosom to give his mother. In tho 
time of tho After Ilan dynasty, Luh Tseih, when ho was six 
years old, went to Kew Keang to see Yuen Shuh. Shuh 
brought out some oranges and gave him. Tseih liid two. of 
them in his bosom. When about to return home, while ho 
was bowing and taking leave of his host, the oranges fell to 
tho ground. Shuh said to him, " Do you, sir, while my guest, 
conceal oranges in your bosom ?" Tseih, kneeling down be- 
fore him, answered, " My mother loves oranges very much. I 
desired to give them to mother." Shuh greatly wondered at 
this reply. 

Shuh and the father of Tseih were officers of high rank. This incident 
occurred during a visit of the boy in the family of his father's friend. Its in- 
terest consists in the filial desire cherished by a son only six years old to con- 
tribute to the enjoyment of his mother. 

He fed the musquitoes to satiety on his Mood, During tho 
Tsin dynasty, Wu Mang, when only eight years old, served his 
parents very dutifully. Tho family were so poor that they 
iiad no musquito curtains to their beds. Every summer, at 
night, the musquitoes were very numerous, piercing the soft 
flesh. Mang allowed them to feed without restraint on his 
blood till they were satisfied. Although exceedingly numer- 
ous, he did not drive them off, fearing that, leaving him, they 
would go to his parents and bite them. 

Mang is represented as lying on m bed a passive victim for tho bloodthirsty 
musquitoes. What WifitBng instance of filial duty ! How profoundly must 
lie bmfo been affected by the restlessness of his parents, as they, stung by the 




456 CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

musquitoes, tossed from side to side. How coorageoiis must hAve been liis 
little heart to invite and sustain the attacks of so many enemies ; for, it is 
said, he went early to bed, hoping that the musquitoes would become satis- 
fied before his parents should retire. A Chinese poet represents him to have 
discoursed thus when bPfelt their bills : '* I have no dread of you, nor have 
you any reason to fear me. Althonf^h I have a fan, I will not use it, dot 
will I strike you with my hand. I will lie very quietly, and let yon gorge to 
the full/' History does not state what effect his filial devotion had on the 
minds of the musquitoes. 

lie slept on the ice to obtain the carp. During the Tsin dy- 
nasty, Wang Liang, at an eariy age, mourned the death of his 
mother. His stepmother, Chu, did not like him. In the pres- 
ence of his father she was repeatedly faulting him, and conse- 
quently she lost the affection of his father. She was fond of 
eating fresh fish, but in the cold winter time the rivers were 
covered with ice. Liang took off his clothes, and went to 
sleep on the ice to procure the fish. Suddenly the ice opened 
of itself, and a couple of carp sprang forth. He seized them, 
and-, returning home, gave them to his mother. His neighbors 
wondered at the fact, and admired him. His filial affection 
Iiad caused what had taken place. 

This remarkable instance of filial devotion is represented by the picture of 
a lad apparently asleep on the ice, and of a brace of fish with their head* 
just protruding above it. It is a little surprising that if his body was *o 
warm as to melt the ice at a distance from it, so as to allow the fish to jump 
out, it should not also thaw the ice under him, thus endangering his prccioui 
life, or, at least, giving him a cold bath by falling into the water. But an 
answer entirely satisfactory to the sincere disciples of Confucius is ready 
to all skeptical objections or curious questions : Heaven, moved by his filial 
love, preserved him, and enabled the fish to come forth. A i>oct has beauti- 
fully said, '* A thousand ages can not efface the remembrance of the crack in 
ihe ice, nor obliterate the fragrant traces of so worthy an action.** 

On account of his mother he buried his child. During the 
Han dynasty, Ko Keu, whose family was very poor, had a 
child three years old. Ken's mother usually took some of her 
food and gave to the child. One day he spoke to his wife 
about it, saying, " We are so poor that we can not even sup- 
port mother. Moreover, the little one shares mother's food. 
Why not bury this child ? We may have another ; but, if 
mother should die, we can not obtain her again." His wife 
did not dare to oppose. Keu, when he had dug a hole more 
than two feet deej), suddenly saw a vase of gold. On the top 



\ 




THE BUBBLING FOUNTAIN AND THE LEAPING CARP. 467 

of the vaso was an inscription, saying, " Heaven bestows this 
g6ld on Ko Kou, tbo dutiful son. The officers shall not seize 
it, nor shall the people take it.'^ 

In the picture, tho wife, holding the little one in her arms, stands looking 
on, while the father digs what he intends to be the grave of his living child. 
It seems strange that tho Chinese should so plainly teach that Heaven re- 
wards one who, ignoring the afifcction of a father for his child, and mindful 
only of his duty as a son, deliberately plans murder, and proceeds to commit 
it, till supematurally prevented. '*The end justifies the means," say some. 
This example illustrates, perhaps as forcibly as any of the twenty-fonr, the 
exceedingly eminent position which affection for one's parents sustains 
among the virtues cherished by this people. 

He fanned the pilhw and warmed the coverlet. During the 
Han dynasty, Hwang Uiang at nine years of age lost his moth- 
er. His mind was so constantly and so intensely occupied in 
thinking of her that the neighbors praised him as very filial. 
Employing himself in assiduous and fatiguing work, he served 
his father with perfect obedience. In summer, when the 
weather was hot, with his fan he cooled his father's pillow 
and bed. In winter, when the weather was cold, with his 
own body he warmed his father's coverlet and mat. The pre- 
fect Tein presented him with a banner as a token of distinc- 
tion. 

A piece of poetry referring to this example of filial piety has been transla- 
ted in prose in the following manner: **When the heat of summer made it 
difficult to sleep quietly, the lad knew what would be for the comfort of his 
venerated parent. Taking a fan, he slowly moved it about the silken cur- 
tains, and the cool air, expanding, enveloped and filled the pillow and the 
bed. In winter, when the snow threatened to crush in the roofs, and the 
fierce winds shook the fences, and the cold penetrated to the bodies, making 
it hazardous to unloose the girdle, then Hiang warmed his father*s bed, that 
he might not fear, because of the cold, to enter the place of dreams." 

The bubbling fountain and the leaping carp. In the Han 
dynasty, Kiang She served his mother very dutifully. His 
wife Pang obeyed her with even greater assiduity than he. 
Their mother loved to drink the water of a river distant from 
the house six or seven li. Pang was in the habit of going afl- 
er it to give to the old lady. She was also exceedingly fond 
of minced fish, and, moreover, did not like to eat it alone. 
Husband and wife managed, though with great expense of 
strength, to provide her with the fish, and she always invited 
in a neighbor to eat with her. By the side of the house snd- 

Vor.. I.— U 




458 CHINESE ANECDOTES. 

denly there babbled forth a spring, the water or which tasted 
like the river water, and every day a brace of carp leaped out, 
which they took and gave their mother. 

The cut reprcscDts two ladies seated at a table enjoyiDg the fish, while the 
son and daughter-in-law stand by in the most respectful manner, readj to 
wait upon their dear mother and her guest. It would seem that thej nercr 
tasted of the fish. Filial piety among the Chinese requires compliance, 
without displeasure or the exhibition of reluctance, with the wishes or com- 
mands of the parents. On account of serving their mother thus dutifully, 
though she was unmindful of their comfort and appetites to a yery unreason- 
able degree, Heaven rewarded She and Pang with "the gushing fountain and 
the leaping carp.^' This and several other of these examples of filial duty, 
however, appear to be calculated to teach that Heaven approved the con- 
duct of the parents as much as of the children. 

With sports and gayly-colored garments he diverted his 
parents. In the Chau dynasty, the venerable Lae obeyed his 
parents very dutifully. He provided them with the sweetest 
and most delicate food. When he had arrived at the age of 
seventy years, still he did not call himself old. He was accus- 
tomed to dress himself in clothing variegated with five differ- 
ent colors, and would act like a little child, playing by the side 
of his parents. He would also take a pail of water, and, while 
going up into the house with it, would pretend to slip, and, 
falling down to the ground, would cry like a child. He did 
these things in order to amuse his parents. 

According to Chinese notions of politeness, one must not represent him- 
self as old in the presence of his parents, or even while they are living, lest 
the remark should excite in them unpleasant reflections, thinking, If our son 
is old, how much more are we I It is said that Lae*s parents were peevish 
and fretful; consequently, in order to please them, though he was seventy 
years old, and had lost almost all his teeth, he called himself their little boy, 
dressed in garments which, both in regard to fashion and gaudy colors, were 
worn only by children, adopted boyish manners, and indulged in childish 
sports. 

Hearing the thunder^ he wept at her grave. In the countr}* 
of Wei, Wang Shwai served his parents very dutifully. His 
mother, while living, was exceedingly frightened whenever it 
thundered, and, having died, she was buried in the hilly forest.. 
Afterward, when there happened wind and rain, and he beard 
the noise of Hoheang rumbling and thundering along, he im- 
mediately ran to the grave, and, reverently kneeling down, 
wept, saying, " Shwai is here, dear mother, do not fear.*' 




BAMBOO SPROUTS VERSUS WEEPING. 459 

; is the name of the female demon or goddess who manages the 
:hander. Shwai refused to take office because it would interfere 
squently visiting the tomb of his mother in the forest. When he 
le passage in the Book of Odes, **Alas! alas! my parents have 
" nourished me with much trouble and care," he always read it 
i, each reading being accompanied with a gush of tears. His pu- 
ook the precaution to tear out this passage from the book, in order 
their teacher from being so deeply affected. 

3pt by the bamboos^ and they produced sprouts. In 
I dynasty, Mang Tsung, when young, mourned the 
« * his father. His mother, when aged, was taken very 
during the winter season she wanted some bamboo 
aade up into soup to eat, but Tsung had no means to 
iny. Finally, he went into the bamboo forest, and, 
j^i<^^i«ig a bamboo with his hands, burst into tears. Such fil- 
ial devotion moved Heaven and Earth, and in a little while the 
earth opened and shot forth several bamboo sprouts. These 
be took, and, returning home, made soup, which he gave his 
mother. As soon as she had finished eating it she became 
perfectly well. 

It is said that, previous to this filial conduct of Mang Tsung, the bamboos 
did not put forth their sproats till spring, but that, having begun to do it for 
the benefit of his mother in the winter time, they have kept up the laudable 
practice until the present time. It should be remarked that they continue to 
grow as late in the spring as they did formerly, notwithstanding they sprout 
to much earlier in the season than they did before his day. Taking this 
view of the subject, it is but just that the Chinese should celebrate the praises 
of Tsung, who thus not only cured his venerable parent with his soup made 
of bamboo sprouts, but influenced Heaven and Earth to cause that vegetable 
to shoot forth some months every year sooner than it was in the habit of 
doing. Behold the power of a single act of sincere filial piety ! 



KXD OF VOL. I. 




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